Harald Heinrichs · Pim Martens Gerd Michelsen · Arnim Wiek Editors

4 
Natural Resources and Chemistry 
4.1 
The Fossil Age 
The resources of chemistry are inorganic materials, such as metals and minerals, 
that are gained by mining. Mining is often connected to severe environmental pol-
lution and also has a social impact. For organic chemistry, oil is still by far the most 
important resource. It is also used as a resource for energy in chemical industry. 
This resource is limited, as are gas and coal. It is a hot bed of discussion nowadays 
4 Green and Sustainable Chemistry

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50
as to how long these fossil resources will be available (Aleklett et al.
2012
 ). However, 
even in the best case, it will be a matter of only decades or a century at the most 
(Fig.
4.3
).
4.2 
The Biorefi nery and Its Potential for Replacing 
the Petrochemical Industry 
The twentieth century saw a boom in the chemical industry with the emergence of 
an organic chemical manufacturing industry based on a cheap carbon feedstock, oil. 
This revolutionised the main energy source away from bio-resources, thereby creat-
ing the basis of the petroleum refi nery we know today. It also helped create the 
chemical industry that has dominated the world for over 50 years. 
Environmental and political concerns over the impact of continued fossil fuel 
use, their depletion and security of supply, combined with a growing population, 
have created a need for renewable sources of carbon. Over the last two decades, 
there has been a global policy shift back towards the use of biomass as a local, 
renewable and low-carbon feedstock. The “biorefi nery” concept is a key tool in 
utilising biomass in a clean, effi cient and holistic manner, whilst maximising value 
and minimising impact. However, the use of biomass as a source of energy, chemi-
cals and materials is not new and has been taking place for millennia. The biorefi n-
ery concept is analogous to today’s petroleum refi neries. Biorefi neries are ideally 
integrated facilities for conversion of biomass into multiple value-added products, 
including energy, chemicals and materials (Figs.
4.4
and
4.5
). It is important that 
biorefi neries utilise a range of low-value, locally sourced feedstocks, which don’t 
compete with the food sector, including low-value plants such as trees, grasses and 
heathers, energy crop and food crop by-products (wheat straw), marine resource 
wastes, seaweeds and food wastes.
The main transformations available to the biorefi nery can be classifi ed as extrac-
tion, biochemical and thermochemical processes. The application of green chemical 
technologies (including supercritical fl uid extraction, microwave processing, bio-
Fig. 4.3 
The fossil age
K. Kümmerer and J. Clark

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conversion, catalytic and clean synthesis methods) are all utilised with the aim of 
developing new, genuinely sustainable, low environmental impact routes to impor-
tant chemical products, materials and bioenergy. These methodologies are usually 
studied independently of one another; however, the integration and blending of 
technologies and feedstocks is a way to increase the diversity of products and the 
socio-economic and environmental benefi ts of the biorefi nery.