History of biology

Early cultures[edit]
See also: History of the world, History of agriculture, and History of medicine

Clay models of animal livers dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found in the royal palace at Mari

The earliest humans must have had and passed on knowledge about plants and animals to increase their chances of survival. This may have included knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior (such as migration patterns). However, the first major turning point in biological knowledge came with the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago. Humans first domesticated plants for farming, then livestock animals to accompany the resulting sedentary societies.^[6]
The ancient cultures of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China, among others, produced renowned surgeons and students of the natural sciences such as Susruta and Zhang Zhongjing, reflecting independent sophisticated systems of natural philosophy. However, the roots of modern biology are usually traced back to the secular tradition of ancient Greek philosophy.^[7]
Ancient Mesopotamia[edit]
Further information: Babylonian medicine
The Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in the natural world as such, preferring to study how the gods had ordered the universe. Animal physiology was studied for divination, including especially the anatomy of the liver, seen as an important organ in haruspicy. Animal behavior too was studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived.^[8]
The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic.^[9][10][11] When a person became ill, doctors prescribed both magical formulas to be recited and medicinal treatments.^[9][10][11] The earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 – c. 2004 BCE).^[12] The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,^[13] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069 – 1046 BCE).^[14] In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was an exorcist-healer known as an āšipu.^[9][10][11] The profession was passed down from father to son and was held in high regard.^[9] Of less frequent recourse was the asu, a healer who treated physical symptoms using remedies composed of herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.^[8]