History of Civilizations of Central Asia
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ISBN 92-3-103985-7 History of civilizations of Central Asia History of Civilizations of Central Asia Towards the contemporary period: from the mid-nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century
Volume VI President: Chahryar Adle Co-Editors: Madhavan K. Palat and Anara Tabyshalieva Multiple History Series UNESCO Publishing 1 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 COPYRIGHT The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Coordinated by I . Iskender-Mochiri English text edited by Jana Gough Composed by Desk (France) Printed by Estudios Gráficos ZURE, Bilbao (Spain) Published in 2005 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7 place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP ISBN 92-3-103985-7 © UNESCO 2005 2 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 CONTENTS
Contents PREFACE OF THE DIRECTOR - GENERAL OF UNESCO 12 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 14 MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (from 1980 to 1993) 17 MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (since 1993) 18 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 19 INTRODUCTION 24 CONTINUITY AND CHANGE 28 1 THE STATES OF CENTRAL ASIA 29 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 The new political and strategic situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The emirate of Bukhara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 The khanate of Khiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 The khanate of Kokand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 The principalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 The parameters of Russian expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 The fate of Tashkent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 The end of the campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 The campaign against Khiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 British reactions to the Khiva expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 CONTENTS
The end of the Kokand protectorate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Campaigns against the Turkmens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 The surrender of Merv and the Afghan question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
TURY TO EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY) 51 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 The agrarian question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Manufacturing and trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Transforming societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
78 Settled populations in the oases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 The nomadic population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Impact of Russian rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 The religious establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Water administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Artisans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Slaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
99 FROM THE MID-NINETEENTH CENTURY TO 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Kashgharia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
FROM 1918 TO THE MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 The strategic context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5 TSARIST RUSSIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 121 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Economic development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Banking and foreign capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Relations with Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Scientific interest in Central Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Jadidism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4
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6 ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET POWER IN CENTRAL ASIA ( 1917 – 24) 149 7 INTELLECTUAL AND POLITICAL FERMENT 180 The role of religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Intellectuals and poets among the nomadic peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Intellectuals and poets among the oasis peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
The new generation of Jadids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Pan-Turkism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Impact of the Jadids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
From the 1850s to the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
From the 1920s to the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9 UZBEKISTAN 219 Soviet Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Independent Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
The tsarist period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
The Alash movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Soviet history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Prior to independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
11 KYRGYZSTAN 258 The Kyrgyz under Russian colonial rule (1850–1917) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Soviet Kyrgyzstan (1917–91) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Economic developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Population and social developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Afterword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
12 TAJIKISTAN 282 Political history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
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Economic and social development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Culture and science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Political developments (1850–60) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
The Russian conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 The Soviet era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
14 THE SAYAN - ALTAI MOUNTAIN REGION AND SOUTH- EASTERN SIBERIA 319 Khakassia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Tuva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Altai
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Buriatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
MONGOLIA FROM THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO 1919 . . . . . . . 337
The rise of the Qing empire and the dissolution of the world of Central Eurasia 337
Qing rule over the Mongols: organization and institutions . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Mongol society in decline (from the mid-nineteenth century) . . . . . . . . . 341
Mongolia in Russo-Qing relations (from the eighteenth to the early twentieth century)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Mongolia during the final years of the Qing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 The 1911 Mongol declaration of independence and international relations . . 348
THE MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’s REVOLUTION OF 1921 AND THE MON- GOLIAN PEOPLE’s REPUBLIC (1924–46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
The birth of the People’s Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 The suppression of Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Soviet purges in Mongolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 The MPR during the Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
THE MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’s REPUBLIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 On the path to democratization and the free market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16 WESTERN CHINA (XINJIANG) 368 From the mid-nineteenth century to 1911 revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
The republican period (1912–49) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 6
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A new chapter in Xinjiang’s history (October 1949 to 1990) . . . . . . . . . . 388
Early colonial rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
The revolt of 1857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 After 1857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Early nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Nationalism and Indian capitalists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
The coming of Gandhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Mass mobilization, independence and partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Independent India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
The Ayub Khan era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
The Yahya Khan regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 The Bhutto era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
The Zia era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 The democratic era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
19 AFGHANISTAN 426 AFGHANISTAN FROM 1850 TO 1919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
FROM INDEPENDENCE TO THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN . . . . . . . . 435
The last Qajar kings (1848–1925) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
The Pahlavi dynasty (1925–79) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 The Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini (1979–89) . . . . . . . . . . 476
ENVIRONMENT, SOCIETY AND CULTURE 479 21 THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH ASIA 480 Overview
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
South Asian landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 South-West Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
22 THE STATUS OF WOMEN (1917–90) 515 THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN NORTHERN CENTRAL ASIA . . . . . . . 515
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WOMEN’s MOVEMENTS AND CHANGES IN THE LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Iran and the Islamic Republic of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . 535 India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
The press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Appendix
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
24 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 572 Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Iran and the Islamic Republic of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Mongolia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
North India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 Pakistan
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Tajikistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 Turkmenistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Uzbekistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602 Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
25 THE ART OF THE NORTHERN REGIONS OF CENTRAL ASIA 608 The overall cultural situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Copper embossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Jewellery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Felt products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Carpet-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 Artistic fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Printed cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 8
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Embroidery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 Leather goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Bone carving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 Wood painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Miniatures and other arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Modern fine arts: painting in the twentieth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF XINJIANG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
The late Qing period (1850–1912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 The Republican period (1912–49) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
The modern period (1949–90) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 UIGHUR VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
The Uighur house . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 THE ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF MONGOLIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Fine arts from the ‘second conversion’ to 1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
Buddhist architecture to 1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Architecture and the fine arts in the early twentieth century . . . . . . . . . . 719
Fine arts, 1921–90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 Architecture, 1921–90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
The contemporary art scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
INDIA AND PAKISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
The tsarist colonial period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
The Soviet period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786 The post-Soviet era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
29 ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING IN NORTHERN CENTRAL ASIA FROM THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST TO THE SOVIET PERIOD (1865–1990) 795 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
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Architecture and urban planning during the tsarist period (nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Architecture and urban planning during the Soviet period (1920s–90s) . . . .
807 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
30 LITERATURE IN PERSIAN AND OTHER INDO - IRANIAN LANGUAGES 833 LITERATURE IN PERSIAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Neoclassicism (the Bazgasht school) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 The dawn of enlightenment: the pre-constitutional period . . . . . . . . . . . 837
The constitutional period: the outburst of social and political literature . . . .
838 The reign of Reza Shah and the beginnings of modern poetry . . . . . . . . . 841
Breaking traditions: new poetry ( she‘r-e now ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 Fiction in modern Persian literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
LITERATURE IN DARI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 Classical literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Modern prose and journalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Literature of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
Literary studies and novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 The post-communist period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
LITERATURE IN TAJIK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859 LITERATURE IN OTHER INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES . . . . . . . . . 863
Kashmiri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863 Punjabi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
Sindhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874 Urdu
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
31 LITERATURE IN TURKIC AND MONGOLIAN 888 LITERATURE IN TURKIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
Urban literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889 The literature of the steppe and mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 LITERATURE IN MONGOLIAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 Kalmukia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Buriatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
10 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 CONTENTS
MAPS* 917 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 927 INDEX 973 History of civilizations of Central Asia 992 11 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 PREFACE
PREFACE OF THE DIRECTOR - GENERAL OF UNESCO The preparation of the History of Civilizations of Central Asia undertaken by the Interna- tional Scientific Committee began in 1980. This scholarly team, composed of 19 members until 1991 and just 16 members after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, comes from the region of Central Asia (as defined by UNESCO) and from other parts of the world. They are responsible for the preparation of this six-volume work, which covers the period from the dawn of civilization to the present day. More than three hundred scholars, mostly from the Central Asian region, have con- tributed to this major work, which is now completed with the publication of the present volume. For each scholar who has invested his or her knowledge and expertise in this great undertaking, the work on this History has been a difficult task since Central Asia is a com- plex region, composed of a variety of cultural entities and influences that have undergone major changes over the centuries. Today, in an era of rapid globalization, it is increasingly vital to find ways to respect the world’s human values. The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity adopted by the General Conference at its thirty-first session is a major step towards finding avenues of dialogue between peoples living on our planet. We know that human beings forge their identity through the cultures which have enriched them. Their sense of worth and personal dignity very much lies in the recognition by the other of the special contribution that each and all – women and men, majorities and minorities – have made to weaving the rich tapestry of the world’s civilization. Indeed, civilizations are fertile mixtures and all bor- rowed from one another well before the advent of our age of electronic communications. The term ‘civilization’ must denote a universal, plural and non-hierarchical phenomenon, since every civilization has been enriched by contact and exchange with others. History is a shared experience. The historical relationship existing between nomadic and sedentary peoples, living in quite different environments – steppes and oases – played a key part in shaping the cultural diversity of Central Asia and made an important contribution to its originality. To what 12 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 PREFACE
extent and in what ways did the same influences affect different societies and fulfil differ- ent functions in extremely varied environments? In this work, we find numerous examples of diverse cultures living together, distinguishable but nevertheless sharing a common her- itage. Therefore, this work strongly attests that each and every culture has made its own distinct contribution to the common heritage of humankind, as recalled in the words of the great Iranian poet and philosopher Saadi Shirazi several hundred years ago: ‘All human beings are like organs of a body; when one organ is afflicted with pain, others cannot rest in peace.’ The History of Civilizations of Central Asia illustrates perfectly the wealth of diversity and the foundation it provides of a shared future. Today, we are faced with a new challenge: to make of that diversity an instrument for dialogue and mutual understanding. Koïchiro Matsuura 13 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
The General Conference of UNESCO, at its nineteenth session (Nairobi,October, Novem- ber 1976), adopted the resolution which authorized the Director-General to undertake, among other activities aimed at promoting appreciation and respect for cultural identity, a new project on the preparation of a History of Civilizations of Central Asia. This project was a natural consequence of a pilot project on the study of Central Asia which was approved during the fourteenth session of the UNESCO General Conference in Novem- ber 1966. The purpose of this pilot project, as it was formulated in the UNESCO programme, was to make better known the civilizations of the peoples living in the regions of Central Asia through studies of their archaeology, history, languages and literature. At its initial stage, the participating Member States included Afghanistan, India, Iran, Pakistan and the former Soviet Union. Later, Mongolia and China joined the UNESCO Central Asian project, thus enlarging the area to cover the cultures of Mongolia and the western regions of China. In this work, Central Asia should be understood as a cultural entity developed in the course of the long history of civilizations of peoples of the region and the above delimita- tion should not be taken as rigid boundaries either now or in the future. In the absence of any existing survey of such large scope which could have served as a model, UNESCO has had to proceed by stages in this difficult task of presenting an integrated narrative of complex historical events from earliest times to the present day. The first stage was designed to obtain better knowledge of the civilizations of Central Asia by encouraging archaeological and historical research and the study of literature and the history of science. A new project was therefore launched to promote studies in five major domains: the archaeology and the history of the Kushan empire, the history of the arts of Central Asia, the contribution of the peoples of Central Asia to the development of science, the history of ideas and philosophy, and the literatures of Central Asia. An International Association for the Study of Cultures of Central Asia (IASCCA), a non-governmental scholarly organization, was founded on the initiative of the Tajik scholar 14 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT B. Gafurov in 1973, assembling scholars of the area for the coordination of interdiscipli- nary studies of their own cultures and the promotion of regional and international cooper- ation. Created under the auspices of UNESCO, the new Association became, from the very beginning of its activity, the principal consultative body of UNESCO in the implementation of its programme on the study of Central Asian cultures and the preparation of a History of Civilizations of Central Asia . The second stage concentrated on the modern aspects of Central Asian civilizations and the eastward extension of the geographical boundaries of research in the new programme. A series of international scholarly conferences and symposia were organized in the coun- tries of the area to promote studies on Central Asian cultures. Two meetings of experts, held in 1978 and 1979 at UNESCO Headquarters, concluded that the project launched in 1967 for the study of cultures of Central Asia had led to con- siderable progress in research and contributed to strengthening existing institutions in the countries of the region. The experts consequently advised the Secretariat on the methodol- ogy and the preparation of the History. On the basis of its recommendations it was decided that this publication should consist of six volumes covering chronologically the whole his- tory of Central Asian civilizations ranging from their very inception up to the present. Furthermore, the experts recommended that the experience acquired by UNESCO during the preparation of the History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind and of the General History of Africa should also be taken into account by those responsible for the drafting of the History. As to its presentation, they supported the opinion expressed by the UNESCO Secretariat that the publication, while being a scholarly work, should be accessible to a general readership. Since history constitutes an uninterrupted sequence of events, it was decided not to give undue emphasis to any specific date. Events preceding or subsequent to those indicated here are dealt with in each volume whenever their inclusion is justified by the requirements of scholarship. The third and final stage consisted of setting up in August 1980 an International Scien- tific Committee of nineteen members, who sat in a personal capacity, to take reponsibility for the preparation of the History. The Committee thus created included two scholars from each of the seven Central Asian countries – the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, China, India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan, Mongolia and what was then the USSR – and five experts from other countries – Hungary, Japan, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. 15 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT The Committee’s first session was held at UNESCO Headquarters in December 1980. Real work on the preparation of the publication of the History of Civilizations of Central Asia started, in fact, in 1981. It was decided that scholars selected by virtue of their quali- fications and achievements relating to Central Asian history and culture should ensure the objective presentation, and also the high scientific and intellectual standard, of this History. Members of the International Scientific Committee decided that the new project should correspond to the noble aims and principles of UNESCO and thereby should contribute to the promotion of mutual understanding and peace between nations. The Committee followed the recommendation of the experts delineating for the purpose of this work the geographical area of Central Asia to reflect the common historical and cultural experience. The first session of the International Committee decided most of the principal matters concerning the implementation of this complex project, beginning with the drafting of plans and defining the objectives and methods of work of the Committee itself. The Bureau of the International Scientific Committee consists of a president, four vice- presidents and a rapporteur. The Bureau’s task is to supervise the execution of the project between the sessions of the International Scientific Committee. The reading committee, consisting of four members, was created in 1986 to revise and finalize the manuscripts after editing Volumes I and II. Another reading committee was constituted in 1989 for Volumes III and IV. The authors and editors are scholars from the present twelve countries of Central Asia and experts from other regions. Thus, this work is the result of the regional and of the inter- national collaboration of scholars within the framework of the programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The International Scientific Committee and myself express particular gratitude to Mrs Irene Iskender-Mochiri for her arduous and selfless work in preparing the volumes for the press. It is our sincere hope that the publication of this last volume (Volume VI) of the History of Civilizations of Central Asia will be a further step towards the promotion of the cultural identity of the peoples of Central Asia, strengthening their common cultural heritage, and, consequently, will foster a better understanding among the peoples of the world. 16 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (from 1980 to 1993) Dr F. R. Allchin (United Kingdom) † Professor M. S. Asimov (Tajikistan) President Editor of Volume IV (Parts One and Two) Dr N. A. Baloch (Pakistan) Professor M. Bastani Parizi (Islamic Republic of Iran) Professor Sh. Bira (Mongolia) Professor A. H. Dani (Pakistan) Editor of Volume I † Professor K. Enoki (Japan) Professor G. F. Etemadi (Afghanistan) Co-editor of Volume II Professor J. Harmatta (Hungary) Editor of Volume II Professor Liu Cunkuan (People’s Republic of China) Dr L. I. Miroshnikov (Russian Federation) Professor S. NATSAGDORJ (Mongolia) † Professor B. N. Puri (India) Co-editor of Volume II Professor M. H. Z. Safi (Afghanistan) Professor A. Sayili (Turkey) Dr R. Shabani Samghabadi (Islamic Republic of Iran) Co-editor of Volume III Professor D. Sinor (United States of America) † Professor B. K. Thapar (India) Professor Zhang Guang-da (People’s Republic of China) Co-editor of Volume III 17 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE (since 1993) Professor C. Adle (Islamic Republic of Iran) President and Editor of Volume V Professor D. A. Alimova (Uzbekistan) Professor M. Annanepesov (Turkmenistan) Professor K. M. Baipakov (Kazakhstan) Co-editor of Volume V Professor Sh. Bira (Mongolia) Professor A. H. Dani (Pakistan) Editor of Volume I Professor M. Dinorshoev (Tajikistan) Professor R. Farhadi (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan) Professor H.-P. Francfort (France) Professor Irfan Habib (India) Editor of Volume V Dr L. Miroshnikov (Russian Federation) Professor D. Sinor (United States of America) Dr A. Tabyshalieva (Kyrgyzstan) Co-Editor of Volume VI Professor ˙I. Togan (Turkey) Professor H. Umemura (Japan) Professor Wu Yungui (People’s Republic of China) 18 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS N. A. Abdurakhimova Professor Department of Historical Sciences College of History National University Tashkent Uzbekistan L. L. Adams Research Fellow Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies 013 Bendheim Hall Princeton University Princeton, N.J. USA
C. Adle Director of Research Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 19, rue Cépré 75015 Paris France R. Afzal
Qaid-i Azam University Department of History Islamabad 44000 Pakistan
A. Alimardonov Tajik Academy of Sciences 33 Rudaki Avenue Dushanbe
Tajikistan D. A. Alimova Director Institute of History Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan Tashkent
Uzbekistan M. Annanepesov Professor of History University of Turkmenistan Ashgabat Turkmenistan G. Ashurov Professor Institute of Philosophy and Law Tajik Academy of Sciences 33 Rudaki Avenue Dushanbe
Tajikistan 19 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS C. Atwood Associate Professor Central Eurasian Studies Department Indiana University Goodbody Hall 157 1011 East 3rd Street Bloomington, Ind., 47405-7005 USA
M. Azzout Architect DPLG and Member of CRESPPA (Research Centre in Sociology and Politics of Paris), MR 7112 of CNRS/CSU (Cultures and Urban Societies), France Ts. Batbayar Ministry of Foreign Affairs 7A Enkh Taivny Gudami Ulaanbaatar Mongolia
J. Boldbaatar Professor 2 Zaluuchudiin Gudami Room No. 263, Num Building No. 2 Ulaanbataar Mongolia
M. Dinorshoev Director
Institute of Philosophy and Law Tajik Academy of Sciences 33 Rudaki Avenue Dushanbe
Tajikistan R. Dor
Director Institut Français d’Études sur l’Asie Centrale (IFEAC) 18A, Rakatboshi Street 700031 Tashkent Uzbekistan W. FLOOR 6412 Dahlonega Road Bethesda, MD 20816 USA
V. Fourniau Professor Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS) 54, Bd Raspail 75006 Paris France A. A. Golovanov Professor Department of Independent Uzbekistan History Institute of History Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan Tashkent
Uzbekistan I. Hasnain Professor Department of Linguistics Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh 202 002 India 20
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS H. Javadi 5516 Westbard Avenue Bethesda, MD 20816 USA
G. Kara ELTE University of Budapest 1378 Budapest Hungary
and Indiana University Goodbody Hall 142 Bloomington, IN 47405 USA A. Khakimov Vice-President Academy of Fine Arts Tashkent Uzbekistan Iqtidar A. Khan Professor of History (retired) Department of History Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh 202 002 India
A. Kian-Thiébaut CNRS-Monde Iranien 27, rue Paul Bert 94204 Ivry-sur-Seine France Li Sheng
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 5 Jianguomennei Street 100732 Beijing China
W. Maley Professor Asia-Pacific College of Diplomacy Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia S. Moosvi Professor of History Department of History Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh 202 002 India
M. Moshev Professor of History University of Turkmenistan Ashgabat
Turkmenistan T. Nakami Professor Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Tokyo University of Foreign Studies 11-1, Asahi-cho 1, Huchu-shi Tokyo 183-8534 Japan N. Nasiri-moghaddam 28, rue Vicq d’Azir 75010 Paris France 21
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS C. Noelle-Karimi Professor University of Bamberg Lehrstuhl für Iranistik Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg 96045 Bamberg Germany K. Nurpeis Professor Institute of History and Ethnology Almaty Kazakhstan Madhavan K. Palat Professor of History Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts Panpath
110 001 New Delhi India
A. K. Patnaik Professor Centre for Soviet and East European Studies
School of International Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi 110067 India
C. Poujol Professor History and Cultures of Central Asia Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (INALCO)
2, rue de Lille 75007 Paris France Qin Huibin Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 5 Jianguomennei Street 100732 Beijing China
R. Y. Radjapova Institute of History of Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan Tashkent
Uzbekistan R. G. ROZI 5 Biran Court Reservoir Victoria 3073 Australia A. Saikal Director Centre for Arab & Islamic Studies (The Middle East & Central Asia) Faculty of Arts Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia E. Shukurov Professor of Ecology 137, Sovetskaia Street, apt. 7 Bishkek Kyrgyz Republic, 720021 A. Tabyshalieva Institute for Regional Studies P.O. Box 1880 Bishkek
Kyrgyz Republic, 720000 22 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS D. Vasilev Vice-President National Association of Russian Orientalists and Professor Oriental History Department Institute of Oriental Studies Russian Academy of Sciences Rozhdestvenka Street 12 103753 Moscow Russian Federation S. P. Verma Professor of History Centre of Advanced Study Department of History Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh 202 002 India Xu Jianying Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 5 Jianguomennei Street 100732 Beijing China
Other collaborating specialists: M. Anwar khan (Pakistan) A. K. Auezkhan (Kazakhstan) L. Batchuluun (Mongolia) G. Krongardt (Kyrgyzstan) L. I. Miroshnikov (Russian Federation) D. Tsedev (Mongolia) 23 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
This sixth and final volume of the History of Civilizations of Central Asia 1 successfully brings the publication of this series to an end. The pioneers who undertook this immense task wished to contribute to fulfilling one of the main goals proclaimed in UNESCO’s Con- stitution, which aims ‘to develop and to increase the means of communication between . . . peoples and to employ these means for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives’. 2 As a further means of achiev- ing that goal, UNESCO had already published in 1968 the History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind . The Organization had also undertaken the publication of a series of books on the history and civilizations of areas on which studies were non- existent, scarce, outdated or biased. These series included, for instance, the General His- tory of Africa , the General History of Latin America, the present History of Civilizations of Central Asia , etc.
3 It is worth noticing that for the latter region, the only extant publica- tion which roughly covered the Central Asian lands was about a century old and dealt only with political history. Entitled History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century, this valuable book was written by a single man, Henry H. Howorth, at a time when the Russians and the British were playing the ‘Great Game’ in Central Asian lands. 4 The resolution authorizing the Director-General of UNESCO to launch the project of the publication of the History of Civilizations of Central Asia was adopted by the General 1 The meaning of the term ‘Central Asia’ as it is defined in these volumes is explained in an appendix by Dr L. I. Miroshnikov at the end of Vol. I, pp. 477–80. 2 Cited by Federico Mayor, then the Director-General of UNESCO, in his Preface to Vol. I of the History of Civilizations of Central Asia . 3 General History of Africa , English ed., Paris, 1981–93, 8 vols.; General History ofLatin America, Spanish ed., Paris, 1999–2004, 9 vols. (6 published). The other series include the General History of the
, English ed., Paris, 1997–2005, 6 vols. (5 published) and The Different Aspects of Islamic Cul- ture , English and French eds., Paris, 1994–2003, 6 vols. (3 published in each language). 4 First published in London from 1876 to 1888 with an additional part issued in 1927; reprinted in 4 vols. in New York in 1970. 24 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 INTRODUCTION Conference of UNESCO held in Nairobi in October and November 1976. The scheme was a consequence of a pilot project on the study of Central Asia approved ten years earlier during the fourteenth session of UNESCO’s General Conference in November 1966. The project aimed to make better known the civilizations of Central Asian peoples through the study of their archaeology, history, languages and literature. The first meeting of the International Scientific Committee in charge of planning the project in all its scientific aspects was held in Paris in December 1980. In the initial stage, the countries involved were Afghanistan, India, Iran, Pakistan and the Soviet Union. In spite of observations made by some scholars, the geopolitical situation in the world at the time did not yet favour the extension of the cultural area under consideration towards more eastern regions of Asia. However, China and Mongolia were later included within the circle of countries participating in the preparation of the publication. Other countries from different parts of the world in which Central Asiatic studies were highly developed were also included in the International Scientific Committee. The experts were from France, Hungary, Japan, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The Central Asian landscape had changed again by the end of 1991, this time dramat- ically, with the transformation of the Soviet Union which gave birth to the Russian Fed- eration, and in Asia to the republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The event was so significant that it provided the terminus ad quem for the volumes, which had the pre-historic period as their starting point. The end date was, however, to be understood approximately as it did not have the same value everywhere: the collapse of the imperial regime in Iran in 1979, for instance, or the fall of the Taliban in Afghanistan in 2001 were far more important for these countries than the changes in the former USSR. The History, arranged chronologically in six volumes (all now published), was con- ceived as follows: Volume I: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., eds. A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson (Paris, 1992). Volume II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D.
, ed. János Harmatta, co-eds. B. N. Puri and G. F. Etemadi (Paris, 1994). Volume III: The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750, ed. B. A. Litvinsky, co- eds. Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi (Paris, 1996). Volume IV: The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, 2 vols., eds. M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth (Part One, Paris, 1998; Part Two, Paris, 2000). 25
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 INTRODUCTION Volume V: Development in Contrast: From the Sixteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Century, eds. Chahryar Adle and Irfan Habib, co-ed. Karl M. Baipakov (Paris, 2003). Volume VI: Towards the Contemporary Period: From the Mid-Nineteenth to the End
, co-eds. Madhavan K. Palat and Anara Tabyshalieva (Paris, 2005). Among these volumes, the most problematic and thorny to prepare was Volume VI, which deals with the present time with all its geopolitical complexity. The difficulties in preparing and publishing this study proved so insuperable that the Editor finally resigned. Within the limited time left until the submission of the final manuscript, no satisfactory sub- stitute could be found and the Co-Editors, the Assistant to the publication (Mrs Iskender- Mochiri) and the President thus had to assume responsibility for compiling and editing the volume. Shortcomings were often inevitable as, due to the strict publication deadline, the competent scholars were sometimes not available. Significant weaknesses, such as the lack of notices on contemporary architecture in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran or Pakistan, as well as on other subjects, are thus evident. In spite of these lacunae, it is nevertheless hoped that readers will either find directly in this volume some hints as to their desired subjects or that the references provided will lead them to the relevant specialist publications. To mention all of those who have taken part in the preparation and publication of these volumes would be an impossible task, but it is essential to single out here the continuous support of UNESCO, without which the series would never have been conceived, prepared and published. It is also necessary to pay tribute to the late Professor and Academician B. G. Gafurov, the President of the International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia. With the assistance of Dr L. I. Miroshnikov as the Rapporteur to that association, and the collaboration of other academics, these scholars indeed prepared the way for the launching of the final project of the publication of this History. Among those initiators were Professors Sh. Bira, A. H. Dani, J. Harmatta, and last but not least Profes- sor D. Sinor. As Vice-Directors and Rapporteurs at the first gatherings of the International Scientific Committee in charge of the project for the publication of the History of Civiliza-
, they greatly contributed to its conception, its launching and later its continuation. Their ground-breaking activities were supported and sustained by my pre- decessor, the late Professor Mohammad S. Asimov, the first President of the International Scientific Committee, who took up his responsibility in 1980 and kept it until his myste- rious assassination in 1996. Equally vital to the success of this major collaborative enter- prise has been the scientific and editorial work of the Directors and Co-Directors of this 26 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 INTRODUCTION series; their names are mentioned at the beginning of each volume and also in the list of volumes given above. Some of these eminent scholars, such as Professors C. E. Bosworth and Irfan Habib, not only undertook their own specific commitments, but also helped the Committee as highly valued advisors. The series also owes greatly to Mrs Irene Iskender-Mochiri, who has overseen the pub- lishing project on behalf of UNESCO and acted as coordinator between the authors, the translators and the Editors. In editorial matters, Mrs Mochiri has benefited from a close and fruitful collaboration with Jana Gough. Thanks are also due to many in the UNESCO English Translation Unit and the translators themselves, who have on several occasions gone beyond their usual obligations in order to improve the quality of the translated texts. Now the arduous task of the publication of this History of Civilizations of Central Asia has reached completion. No doubt, the advance of knowledge and development in research methods will impose sooner rather than later if not a rewriting then at least a substantial revision of its contents, but all those who have collaborated to create this series will be satisfied if their readers conclude that in some measure light has been thrown on a complex and hitherto little-known subject. 27 Contents
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