I. Introduction II. Main part: The philosophy of positivism

By the 1930s, there was a bit of a depressing mood in Hemingway’s work. The reason for this is that the writer is said to have been "intoxicated by fame." Evidence of this is Hemingway's desire to portray himself as a "true man," his passion for Spanish bullfighting, his passion for African hunting, and his indifference to those around him. His works during this period include "Afternoon Death," "Green Hills of Africa," depicting Spanish bullfights, travel diaries to Africa, and "Yes or No" stories from Florida.In the 1930s, only two stories from the author's work, The Short Happiness of Francis Macaombeming and The Snows of Kilimanjaro, received critical acclaim.
The Spanish Civil War marked a turning point in Hemingway's life and work. He established himself as a true artist. Great talents are distinguished by their extreme sensitivity to the ills of society. Hemingway's active attitude to the Spanish War is proof of this. A fundraiser for Republicans, he traveled to Spain as a military correspondent for the North American Newspaper Association and as a screenwriter for the documentary "Land of Spain."
After his second trip to Spain, Hemingway wrote a play called The Fifth Column, which described the siege of Madrid in the fall of 1937.
The most brilliant work of Hemingway's work of this period is the novel "Whom the Bell Calls".The epigraph to the work is an epigraph by the English poet John Don: "Never ask who the bell is calling, it is calling you." The novel is dedicated to the events of the Spanish Civil War. The protagonist, Robert Jordan, is an American volunteer fighting on the Republican side. Every minute, every second, in the midst of a brutal war in which the image of a cold death is felt, Robert Jordan awakens in his heart a love for his Spanish daughter, Maria. While this legacy of love, of happiness, gives the work a tragic spirit, Maria’s tragic past exacerbates the tragedy. However, the fact that a person remains a human being, and strives for happiness even in the most hopeless moments gives light to the reader's heart. “Whom the Bell Calls” brought the writer great fame.
In 1940, Hemingway married Martha Gellhorn, bought a house near Havana, and traveled to China with his wife. He traveled to London in 1944 as a military correspondent (by this time he was divorced from his wife). He served in the British Western Air Force and on August 25, 1944, entered Paris with American troops. The writer took an active part in the military operations of the Allies, even forgetting his correspondence, was awarded a bronze medal for his bravery and returned to Havana in 1946. Here he isMeet Mary Welsh, a reporter for The Times. Hemingway marries her and marries this wonderful woman for the rest of his life.
In 1950, he published the novel The River in the Shadow of the Trees. The events of the work reflect the Second World War, which takes place in Italy. Critics greeted the novel coldly. The author was accused of being sentimental and overly self-centered. Even feuilletons and parodies were written for this novel.
However, the novel The Old Man and the Sea, which saw the light of day in 1952, dispelled the mistrust of the author's work and the idea that his talent was fading. The sad link about the old, unlucky fisherman has been praised by story critics and the general readership. Hemingway's fame spread throughout the world, and in 1953 he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for this work.
In 1954, Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing skills, once again demonstrated in his novel The Old Man and the Sea, as well as for his influence on modern prose.At the award ceremony, Anders Esterling, a member of the Swedish Academy, described Hemingway as "one of the most important writers of our time."
Hemingway will not be able to attend the Nobel Prize presentation due to deteriorating health In 1960, the writer was treated at the Mayo Hospital in Rocheistei, where he was diagnosed with mental illness, depression. Upon his discharge from the hospital, Hemingway realized he could no longer be creative and committed suicide on June 2, 1961.
Hemingway's death shocked the world's artists. American critic Edmund Wilson writes that "this event is tantamount to the sudden collapse of one of the cornerstones of our entire generation."
Charles Dickens, a great English writer after Shakespeare, is the most achieved representative of the English critical realism literature of the 19th century. Dickens is immortal, and his works vividly reproduce the social conditions of Victorian England. By making an analysis of the historical settings, especially the concrete personage images, and identifying the critical realism in the novel, this thesis aims to reveal and criticize the social issues in the early Victorian era in the middle of the 19th century. The hero David’s grief at separation and joy in union in David Copperfield reveals the true nature of the society from multi-level aspects. This typically shows the corrosion of money on marriage, family and society and exposes the evils of money. To expose and criticize the social problems in the mid of nineteenth century Queen Victoria era, we reveal the hidden Victoria beauty of the curtain Society to find out the real social appearance in the works. So the study of the details of the critical realism in David Copperfield has the special significance on the research of Dickens's emotional creation and understanding of the society at that time.Charles Dickens was the first author who had written of the poor with fidelity and sympathy and particularly famous for his vivid comic characterizations and social criticism. His works were also famous during Victorian age and among the great classics in all fictions. He wrote many works about the society in the 19th century, among which David Copperfield was one of the most important novels and his favorite. The novel implied the author’s unusual life experience. Meanwhile, David Copperfield destiny symbolized the middle-class intelligentsia questing for development in the 19th century in British society. Details of critical realism in the novel expose and criticize profoundly the reality, which shows the strong dissatisfaction and rebellion towards reality. Their criticism was against the evils of capitalist society and atrocities, ugly money relations and degradation characters in the society and the hypocritical morality. Critical realism not only arouses suspicion and concern of people about the order of reality, but also plays a huge role in the progress of the society and the development of contemporary world literature.Critical realism ideological trend has made great achievements in Europe. The great achievements of Europe critical realism uncover the human civilization in the 19th century. There appeared a new literary trend and obtained the preliminary development from the 1820s. Critical realism became the main trend of European literature from 30s to 40s after romanticism. English critical realism of the 19th century flourished in the forties and in the early fifties. In Britain, Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray represent the interests of small and medium-sized bourgeois at that time to expose and criticize sin and corruption of the capitalist social reality. Others are Bronte sisters, Elizabeth Gaskell, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. The novelists exposed and criticized the corrupted society mercilessly. They are generally known as critical realists. The greatest English realist of the time was Charles Dickens. 2) The basic characteristics of critical realism literature The critical realism literature in nineteenth century, is a splendid page in the bourgeois literary history and also an important heritage in the treasure trove of the world literature. Critical realism shows all aspects of social life and reveals the contradiction of reality in considerable depth. In their works, we can see the collapse of the feudal society and the rise of capitalism. We can also see oppressive serfdom and cruel capital exploitation. They particularly expose and criticize the capitalist system, which is widely involved in various fields. This causes the people’s suspicion and dissatisfaction to the existing order, so it has great social significance.The English Bourgeois revolution may be divided into three periods:

1. 
   The Eve of the Revolution.
   
2. 
   The civil war (1642-1649).
   
3. 
   The development of journalism or the formation of the republic.
   

In the 17th century England was an agricultural country. Only the east and south of England were industrially developed. The rich farmers were connected with the wool market, and their interests were the same as the bourgeoisie.
During the last years of Elizabeth's reign Parliament began to be very powerful. All through James -I’ s reign (1603-1635) the Commons quarreled with the king. And the struggle between the two sides began again when in 1625 Charles-I took his father’s place on the throne. The parliament was against the king and the king had to leave the London. He went to the north of England. There he gathered the army. In summer of 1642 the king declared was at Notingham and a civil war began between the royalists (the supported of the king) and the Parliamentarians. It. was endeed in 1649. On the 30th of January 1649, Charles was beheaded, and England was proclaimed a Commonwealth ( or Republic ). The head of the Republic became a well-known general Cromwell. The political struggles involving broad masses of the English population favoured the development of political literature and laid the foundation of journalism. The English people took a tremendous interests in all kinds of information. The periodical press sprang up as well. The greatest of all publicists during the Puritan revolution was John Milton.
John Milton. (1608-1674).
The great poet of the English Bourgeois Revolution John Milton was born in London on December 9, 1608. Their family was not poor. Milton’s father was a prosperous scrivener (a clerk who copied documents) in London. He was a great lover of music and also a composer of the time. John's father took care of son's early education. John learned to love music and books. He read and studied so intensely [in`tensli:] that at the age of twelve he had already formed the habit of working until midnight. Later he was educated at school. At the age of 16 he went to the University of Cambridge. He obtained his "Bachelor" degree in 1629 and his "Master of Arts" in 1632.
After graduating the University he went to his native place Norton, in Buckinghamshire. There he gave himself up to study and poetry. Many of Milton's poems were written at Horton. They form the first period of his creative work. Milton had long wished to complete his education by travelling, as it was the custom of the time. In 1637Milton left England for European tour. He visited Paris and other cities in Italy. He spent much time in the library of the Vatican [v etik n]. In Italy, he met and talked with the great Galileo [gæli`leiou]. Milton considered it wrong to be travelling, abroad for personal enjoyment. He returned to England in 1639, just when the struggle between the king and the Puritan bourgeoisie began.
At the age of 34, Milton married Marry Powell [`pau l] the daughter of a wealthy royalist. Milton kept a keen eye on the public affairs of the time. The years between 1640 and 1660 were the second period in his literary work.
When a Republican Government was established in the year 1649, Milton was appointed Latin Secretary to the Council of State. The work consisted chiefly of translating into Latin and from Latin diplomatic government papers. This was the time when many Royalists went abroad and hired writers to write against revolutionary England. Now came the braying times when the Puritan Revolution turned to Milton for help. Milton did not belong to any of the Puritan sects, but he agreed to write for the cause of the Revolution, because he hated tyranny. In his excellent pamphlets Milton made Europe understand the Revolution was not just a great rebellion, as the Royalists insisted, but that it was only force which could give the people rights and freedom. Milton had poor eyesight and his doctors warned him that unless he stopped reading and writing entirely, he would lose his sight. To this Milton replied that he had already sacrificed his poetry and was willing to sacrifice his eyes, too, for the liberty of his people. He lost his eyesight in 1652. In the same year Milton's wife died in child-birth. Milton was left with three young daughters. Four years later he married the daughter of republican but their happiness wasn’t long. She died within a year of their marriage. During the year of his work as Latin Secretary and journalist Milton wrote only a few sonnets One of these sonnets was "To the Lord General
Croumwell”
The years of Milton's retirement became the third period in his literary work. During this period he created works that made him one of the greatest poets of England. These were "Paradise Lost" and "'Paradise Regained". Milton died on November 8, 1674, and was buried in London.
Many years afterwards a monument was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
“Paradise Lost” (1667)
The plot of this poem is based on a bible story. It took him 7 years to write this poem. The work consists of 12 "books". The characters are: Satan and his rebel-angels. God the Almighty, three guardian angels Raphael, Gabriel and Michael and the first man and woman – Adam and Eve. The revolutionary spirit is shown in Satan, who revolts against. God.
Adam and Eve are allowed by God to live in Paradise, in the Garden of Eden, as along as they do not eat fruit that grows on the Tree of the Knowledge of good and evil.
Satan, who has been driven from the garden of Eden, comes back and he persuade Eve to eat an apple from the Tree of Knowledge. Eve eats an apple from forbidden tree and took another for Adam. Having known about it the God became very angry and made them to leave Paradise. Adam and, Eve are full of energy. They love each other and they are not sorry to leave paradise. Well known poets of the 19th century said in "Paradise Lost" Adam and Eve are Man and Woman the finest of all earthly creatures.
“Paradise Regained” (1671).
It is also based on the bible story but it. is not connected with the first work. It is much shorter. It consists of 2 parts. The main characterize is Christ. Here he described as bourgeois revolutionary and has some features of John Milton. Like Milton himself he thinks that people are not yet ready to take their liberty. The only way to save people from difficult condition he sees in educated man. Milton considered this work is better than the first one.
The history of England in the second half of the 17th century and during all of the 18th century was marked by British colonial expansion and the struggle for the leading role in commerce. In the eighteenth century England achieved, politically and economically the position of a great power in Europe. Eighteenth century England was distinguished also in science and philosophy. (Isaac Newton, David Hume, Adam Smith). The most active sections of population at that time were the commercial classes, that is the middle classes.
The writers and philosophers of this age reflected the ideology of the middle class. They protested against the survival of feudalism. They thought that vice was due to ignorance, so they started a public movement for enlightening the people. The enlighteners wanted to bring knowledge, that is “light” to the people. To their understanding this would do away with all the evils of society, and social harmony would be achieved. This movement was called the Enlightenment. Since the enlighteners believed in the power of reason, the period was also called the age of Reason. The movement of Enlightenment spread later to the continent. The characteristic features of this movement were:

1. 
   A deep hatred of feudalism and its survivals; the enlighteners rejected church dogmas and caste distinctions;
   
2. 
   A love of freedom, a desire for systematic education for all, a firm belief in human virtue and reason;
   
3. 
   a concern for the fate of the common people and of the peasants in particular.
   

This period saw a remarkable rise in literature. People wrote on many sub-jects and made great contributions in the fields of philosophy, history, natural sciences and the new science of political economy. Writers widely accepted those literary forms, in particular, prose forms, which were understandable to the people as a whole. Contact between writers and readers was established by the famous English essayists Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. They started and directed several magazines for which they wrote pamphlets and essays. In 1709 Steele issued a magazine,
“The Tatler”. Others followed it: “The Spectator” (1711), “The Guardian” (1713), and “The Englishman”(1713). In the latter political problems were discussed. Periodical newspapers also helped to spread information among the general public.
The main literary trends of the age of the Enlightenment in England were classicism, realism, sentimentalism and early romanticism. The XVIII century gave the world such brilliant English writers as Alexander Pope, Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding, Samuel Richardson, Tobias Smollet and the famous dramatist Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
ALEXANDER POPE (1988 - 1744). One of the great names in English poetry of the early 18 century is that of Alexander Pope. Being a classicist he developed a taste for the art of ancient Greece and Rome. Classical forms suited the age, which tried to bring everything under the control of reason. The simplicity, proportion, and restrained emotion of the ancient Greek and Roman writers appealed to the English classicists. In 1715 Pope published a part of his translations of the
“Iliad” and the “Odissey” of Homer, which brought him fame.
Pope had a delicate sense of style, which he polished to the highest degree. He considered that one should follow the strict rules in poetry if wanted to become a real poet. In 1709 he published his “Pastorals”, written as an imitation of ancient authors. In 1711 his “ An Essay on Criticism” was published. In the work the author had presented his aesthetic principles. In his satirical works “The Rape of the Lock”(1712), “The Dunciad» the poet ridicules the vices of the society.
Pope deals with the favourite subject of vice and virtue in his famous poem “An Essay on Man” (1732), in which he analyses the powers and weaknesses of man. He believed that the perverse nature of man was imaginary rather than real, each thing in the world was in harmony with others. He refused to see contradictions that arose after the Revolution of 1688 and was later criticized by those writers who were not satisfied with the results of the Revolution.
Pope’s philosophy was rationalism. Rationalism is a conviction that one should think and behave rationally - according to reason; it takes for granted the idea that the world is put together in such a way that the human mind can grasp it. To help an ordinary human mind grasp the structure of this world a poet should describe the universe in words - not completely, but well enough to be understood by a human being.
Pope was an organizer of a society of literary men who called themselves the “Martin Scriblerus’s Club”. Swift numbered among its members. Martin Scriblerus was an imaginary personage: anyone who wished to publish a satire in a magazine was allowed to use the pseudonym Martin Scliblerus. Pope hoped that when put together these articles would make an interesting book; but they remained isolated compositions. Yet it was the Martin Scriblerus’s club that inspired Swift to write the famous novel “Gulliver’s Travels”.
DANIEL DEFOE (1661 -1731).