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(d) Behavioural incident methods. These concentrate on employee behaviour, which is measured against typical behaviour in each job, as defined by common critical incidents of successful and unsuccessful job behaviour reported by managers.
(e) Results-orientated schemes. These review performance against specific targets and standards of performance agreed in advance by manager and subordinate together. There are significant advantages to such an approach.
(i) The subordinate is more involved in appraisal because they are able to evaluate their progress in achieving jointly agreed targets.
(ii) The manager is relieved of a critic's role, and becomes a coach.
(iii)Clear and known targets help modify behaviour. The effectiveness of the scheme will depend on the targets set (are they clearly defined? realistic?) and the commitment of both parties to make it work.

20. 
    Described by the scalar chain concept
    

A ‘tall’ organisation has many levels of management (a long scalar chain) and a narrow span of control.
A ‘flat’ organisation has few levels of management (a short scalar chain) and a wide span of control.

It is worth noting that tall organisations tend to be more bureaucratic and take longer to make decisions, due to the large number of levels of management that need to be involved. Flat organisations tend to have weaker control and fewer chances for employees to progress or be promoted within the organisation.
Scalar chain - This is the line of authority which can be traced up or down the chain of command, from the most senior member of staff to the most junior. It therefore relates to the number of levels of management within an organisation.

21. 
    Traditional theory of supply ( question type will be “true or false”)
    

Question will be like this:
59. Are the following statement regarding the traditional theory of supply true or false?
True False

• 
  In the long run, the marginal cost curve always slopes upwards
  
• 
  In the short run, the marginal cost curve slopes more steeply than the average cost curve
  

22.