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c::: i — i 'i ___ [ Day Out o f ! (F o re ig n | [B u s in a s c ] { c o n v e n tio n I L J I J L .y [lii -----------*C0( i L Hul t i pi i e r C o e f f i c i e n t s - —- I n p u t-O u t p u t b a sed Model J — — - i - p - — j Employ S a l e s Tax c e n t Revenue £ D i r e c t J J j i n d i r e c t J ^ I n d u c e d j ----- c::: D om estl T o u ria n Demand F u n c tio n F o re ig n ~ T ~ U n ite d Kingdom “ l i e : : ! — — : : l _ _ [ I t a l y 1 [ J a p a n j W est Canada J I J h r „ T J L J Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 6 - SECTIDN I THEORETICAL DISCUSSION SJS. TOURISM EOQHOMICS R esearch on t o u r i a n econom ics h a s been h i g h ly fra g m e n te d w ith r e s e a r c h e r s f o llo w in g s e p a r a t e an d o f t e n d iv e r g e n t p a th s . Ftor t h i s re a s o n , w id ely a c c e p te d p r o c e d u re s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h o econom ic e f f e c t s o f to u r i a n have n o t been e s t a b l i s h e d a n d few s t u d i e s a tte m p t a com prehensive e x a m in a tio n o f t h e im p a c ts o f t o u r i a n . H is m ajo r r e a s o n f o r t h e f r a g m ented r e s e a r c h w as t h e sudden i n t e r e s t i n t o u r i a n Im p a c ts s t u d i e s i n t h e e a r l y six ty * s, a tim e when t h e r e w e re no s ta n d a r d i z e d d e f i n i t i o n s an d no r i g o r o u s m ethodology f o r s t u d i e s i n t o u r i a n . For t h i s re a s o n , t h e e a r l y t o u r i a n m ethodology had been m o stly o f t h e ad hoc t y p e . One o f t h e e a r l i e s t and m ost p o p u la r t o u r i a n m u l t i p l i e r s was d e v e lo p ed ty a aw s o n an d Knetsoh [1 9 6 7 1 . They d e f in e d t h e m u l t i p l i e r a s fo l l o w s . A K ------------------ (1 - BC) w here K i s t h e r e g io n a l t o u r i a n m u l t i p l i e r c o e f f i c i e n t . A i s t h e p r o p o r ti o n o f t o u r i s t e x p e n d itu r e re m a in in g i n th e r e g io n a f t e r f i r s t ro u n d l e a k a g e s . C i s t h e m a rg in a l p ro p e n s ity t o sp end o n l o c a l goods and s e r v i c e s an d B i s t h e p ro p o r tio n o f t h e e x p e n d itu r e of l o c a l p e o p le t h a t a c c r u e s a s l o c a l incom e. The above ad -h o c m u l t i p l i e r model i s d e f i c i e n t i n maqy ways. The model h a s been c r i t i c i z e d f o r f a i l i n g t o ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p a t t e r n o f t o u r i s t e x p e n d itu r e , a s w e ll a s t h e econom ic base an d i n t e r s e c t o r l i n k a g e s i n t h e stu d y a r e a . I n t e r s e c t o r l i n k a g e s a r e im - I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 7 - p o r t a n t because th ey d e te rm in e th e m agnitude o f l e a k a g e s a n d a f f e c t t h e s i z e of th e m u l t i p l i e r c o e f f i c i e n t . A nother t o u r i a n m u l t i p l i e r m ethodology d e r iv e d f r a n econom ic base th e o ry had been u s e d t y R . l l . N athan an d A s s o c i a te s [1966] t o c a l c u l a t e employment m u l t i p l i e r s o f t o u r i s t sp en d in g i n 376 c o u n t i e s i n t h e A p p a la c h ia r e g io n . A ccording t o t h e econom ic base th e o ry , exogenous o r o u t s id e I n j e c t i o n s o f money ( i n c l u d i n g t o u r i s t e x p e n d i tu r e s ) c o n s t i t u t e th e s o l e oause of grow th i n a r e g io n a l economy, and l o c a l oonsuner sp en d in g i s c o n s id e r e d t o be r e l a t e d e n t i r e l y to t h e l e v e l o f re g io n a l a c t i v i t y . C onsequently t h e m u lti p i l o r i s t a k e n t o be t h e change i n t o t a l a c t i v i t y d iv id e d by t h e change i n t h e r e l e v a n t c a u s a l a c t i v i t y . The base th e o ry m u l t i p l i e r i s d e r iv e d from t h e f o llo w in g i d e n t i t y : E r = Ere + Q-l + E rg + Erx w here Er = t o t a l r e g io n a l employment, Ere = r e g io n a l employment s e r v in g l o c a l h o u seh o ld consum ption, Erl = l o c a l employment s e r v ic i n g in v e s tm e n t a o t l v i t y , Erg = lo c a l employment s e r v ic i n g l o c a l , s t a t e , and n a t i o n a l governm ent a c t i v i t i e s , Erx = lo c a l employment s e r v ic i n g r e g io n a l e x p o r ts . Note t h a t in v e s tm e n t, governm ent and e x p o r t a c t i v i t i e s a r e a l l t r e a t e d a s exogenous v a r i a b l e s i n t h e s en se t h a t t h e money was c o n s id e r e d a s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e r e g io n a l eoonomy from o u t s id e . FT am t h e above id e n t i t y 1 - E re = B rl + E rg + B*x E r Er and t h e r e f o r e dEr = dE r = dEr = 1 d E rl dErg d E rx (1 - E r c ) /E r Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 8 - I f dErx2 i s t h e d i r e c t i n c r e a s e i n employment c r e a t e d by t o u r i s t ^ sp e n d in g (a n e x p o r t a o t l v i t y ) an d dEr i s t h e r e s u l t i n g i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l r e g io n a l employment, th e n dEr = 1 dErx2 (1 - E re )/E r The econom ic base m u l t i p l i e r s model has been c r i t i c i z e d f o r b ein g t h e o r e t i c a l l y unsound. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t s a s s u m p tio n t h a t a l l economic grow th o r i g i n a t e s from t h e exogenous s e c to r i s u n re a s o n a b le because i t p r e c lu d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of grow th i n a c lo s e d economy. In a d d itio n , K a lt e r and L ard s [1968] h av e a l s o d em o n stra te d t h a t t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t a l l o u ts id e i n j e c t i o n s o f money, (w h e th e r by p r i v a t e i n v e s t o r s , g overn ment p r o j e c t s o r t o u r i s t sp en d in g ) h a v e t h e same m u l t i p l i e r e f f e c t on t h e r e g io n a l economy i s u n r e a l i s t i c . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e m ethodology fo r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e im p a c ts o f to u ris m h a s beoome m ore r i g o r o u s and A r c h e r 's [1976] i n p u t - o u t p u t based m odel, h a s become t h e s ta n d a r d t o o l f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e m u l t i p l i e r e f f e c t s o f to u rism e x p e n d itu r e s . Hence, t h e A rcher model i s t h e m ethodology ad o p te d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g NYC t o u r i a n m u l t i p l i e r s i n t h i s s tu d y . (S e e p ages 55 and 5 6 .) The a t t r a c t i o n o f t h e i n p u t - o u t p u t fram ew ork i s t h a t i t t a k e s i n t o ac c o u n t th e econom ic base of th e study a r e a a s w e ll a s t h e n a t u r e of i n t e r s e c t o r l i n k a g e s . I t t h e r e f o r e p ro v id e s m ore r e l i a b l e m u l t i p l i e r c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a n t h e above m o d els. D is c u s s in g t h e lin k a g e s betw een t o u r i a n and econom ic grow th, Bond and Ladnan [1972] h a v e a d o p te d a t h r e e s e c to r model s i m i l a r t o A rth u r L e w is 's tw o -g a p model to o u t l i n e t h e grow th t r a n s f o r m a tio n p ro c e s s . A ccording t o Bond and Ladman grow th o c c u rs a s a r e s u l t o f c a p i t a l fo rm a tio n i n t h e m odern s e c t o r r e s u l t i n g from t h e r e in v e s tm e n t o f " c a p i t a l i s t s u rp lu s " t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 9 - made p o s s i b le ty th e t r a n s f e r of low o o s t re d u n d a n t l a b o r from th e t r a d i t i o n a l s e c to r th ro u g h t h e f o r e i g n s e c t o r and u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e m odern s e c t o r . Tourism , one of th e m ajor com ponents o f t h e f o r e i g n s e c t o r , f a c i l i t a t e s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p ro c e s s by p ro v id in g f o r e i g n exchange w hich i s u sed t o a c q u i r e s c a ro e c a p i t a l goods a n d o t h e r raw m a t e r i a l s . Bond and Ladman* s m ethodology, though a p p r o p r i a t e f o r d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r i e s i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a h ig h ly s o p h i s t i c a t e d economy such a s t h a t of New York C ity . T h is i s beoause advanced e c o n o m ie s a r e n o t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d u alism and h av e no c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e t r a d i t i o n a l s e c t o r s . For our p urpose, we hav e ad o p te d a m ore s o p h i s t i c a t e d grow th model s i m i l a r to th o s e u sed i n a n a ly z in g t o u r i a n and econom ic grow th i n B arbados by A rcher [1984] a n d i n H aw aii by G h a ll [1 9 6 6 ] . For an e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e to u ria n - g ro w th model see S e c t i o n I I . To m in im ize m e th o d o lo g ic a l c o n f u s io n an d a s s i s t i n m aking t o u r i a n s t u d i e s com parable, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union o f O f f i c i a l T ra v el O rg a n iz a tio n s under t h e a u s p io e s o f t h e U n ite d N a tio n s [G eneva 1963] h a s a l s o moved t o s ta n d a r d iz e d d e f i n i t i o n s an d te r m i n o l o g i e s u s e d i n t o u r i a n im pact s t u d i e s . The U n ite d N a tio n s d e f in e s t o u r i a n a s : " t h e tem p o ra l movement o f p e o p le t o d e s t i n a t i o n s o u t s id e t h e i r norm al p la c e of work and re s id e n c e , t h e a c t i v i t i e s u n d e r ta k e n d u r in g t h e i r s ta y i n th o s e d e s t i n a t i o n s , and t h e f a c i l i t i e s c r e a t e d t o c a t e r t o t h e i r needs T h is d e f i n i t i o n c o v e rs day t r i p p e r s a s w e ll a s o v e r n ig h t o r tem porary v i s i t o r s , th e purpose of whose jo u rn e y can be c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r e i t h e r c f th e f o llo w in g h e a d in g s : a ) L e is u re ( r e c r e a t i o n , h o lid a y , h e a l th , stu d y , r e l i g i o n a n d s p o r t ) b) B u sin e ss, fa m ily , m is s io n m e e tin g an d co n v e n tio n . I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 1 0 - Tour i an i s a m u l t i - f a c e t e d phenomenon w hich i n v o l v e s a movement t o d e s t i n a t i o n s o u t s id e t h e norm al p la o e o f r e s id e n c e . A c o n c e p tu a l fram ew ork w hich i l l u s t r a t e s to u ris m a s a n a m a l^ m of v a r io u s d e c i s i o n s / a c t i v i t i e s an d t h e i r i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s p r e s e n t e d below. The fram ew ork s t r e s s e s some of t h e m ajor com ponents o f to u ris m a s w e ll a s p la o in g t h e im p a c ts o f to u ris m i n a b ro a d e r c o n te x t. A c co rd in g t o W all and H a th ie s o n [1 9 8 2 ], to u ris m i s oomposed o f t h r e e fu n d a m e n ta l e le m e n ts. 1 . A dynam ic ele m e n t w hich in v o l v e s t r a v e l to a s e l e c t e d d e s t i n a t i o n o r o r d e s t i n a t i o n s . 2 . A s t a t i c e le m e n t in v o l v in g a tem porary s ta y a t t h a t d e s t i n a t i o n . 3 . A c o n s e q u e n tia l ele m e n t r e s u l t i n g from t h e p ro c e e d in g tw o f a c t o r s , w hich i s c o n c ern e d w ith t h e e f f e c t s o n t h e econom ic, p h y s ic a l and s o c i a l su b sy stem s w ith w hich t h e t o u r i s t i s d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y i n o o n t a c t. Gray [1970] h a s c l a s s i f i e d t o u r i a n under two b road c a t e g o r i e s nam ely: S u n lu s t and W a n d e rlu s t. The m ajo r p u l l f a c t o r s o f S u n lu s t t r a v e l c o n s i s t o f a co m b in a tio n o f t h e f o llo w in g : warm c lim a te s , sandy b ea ch e s, f i s h i n g a r e a s , s k i r e s o r t s . ( 1 ) I n o o n t r a s t W a n d erlu st t r a v e l r e q u i r e s d e f i n i t i o n a l l y t h a t t h e t o u r i s t be ex p o se d t o so m eth in g new. T h is may i n v o lv e any o r a l l o f t h e f o llo w in g c o m b in a tio n s : o u l t u r a l , p e rfo rm in g a r t s , s i g i t s e e i n g , h i s t o r i c a l landm arks an d monuments e t c . C lim ate i s r e l a t i v e l y l e s s im p o r ta n t. U nlike S u n lu s t, W anderlust t r a v e l i s s u b j e c t t o a r e l a t i v e l y l e s s e r d e g re e of s e a s o n a l i ty th a n S u n lu s t, i n which c li m a t e p la y s a prim ary r o l e . F o llo w in g G ray ' s [1970] taxonom y, t o u r i a n i n NYC w ould be c l a s s i f i e d a s t h e W a n d erlu st ty p e . ( i ) T o u ria n i n H aw aii, t h e C a rib b e a n a r e gnod ex a m p le s o f S u n lu s t t o u r i a n . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 1 1 - G iven t h e p o t e n t i a l n e g a t iv e in f l u e n c e t h a t p e r a i e t e n t r e p o r t s ab o u t £ c rim e and m uggings h a v e on p o t e n t i a l t o u r i s t s t o NYC, G r a y 's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f W a n d erlu st i s i n a d e q u a te f o r t r a v e l to NYC. An a d d i t i o n a l c a te g o ry i s needed i n o r d e r t o c a p t u r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r a t t r a c t i o n s o f b ig c i t i e s t o t o u r i s t s . T h is a d d i t i o n a l c a te g o ry i s w h a t I c a l l " M e tro lu s t" . M e tro lu s t i s s i m i l a r to m ost fo rm s o f W a n d erlu st e x c e p t t h a t t h e d e s t i n a t i o n i s a l a r g e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w ith w e ll d ev e lo p ed i n f r a s t u c t u r e and s o c i a l a m e n itie s . E xpanding G r a y 's d e f i n i t i o n , t r a v e l to l a r g e c i t i e s f o r c u l t u r a l ex p o su re, h e a l th , h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t , v i s i t i n g fa m ily and f r i e n d s , a tt e n d i n g c o n f e re n c e s , and s p o r t s e v e n t s can be c l a s s i f i e d u n der M e tro lu s t. C u ltu r a l e x p o su re, f o r exam ple, i n v o lv e s t h e e x p o s u re o f th e t o u r i s t t o o t h e r c o u n t r y 's peopLe, l i f e s t y l e , e t h n i c c o m p o sitio n , custom s a n d la n g u a g e s . C u ltu r a l to u ris m i n v o lv e s m ore t h a n i n t e r e s t i n v a n is h in g l i f e s t y l e s and t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . C u ltu r a l ex p o su re a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f knowledge ab o u t p e o p le of contem porary s o c i e t i e s , o b serv ed th ro u g h t h e a r t s , c r a f t s , th e t h e a t r e and m ovies, m usic, work, e t h n i c i t y , re lig L o n and la n g u a g e , t r a d i t i o n , fo o d a n d d r e s s . H i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t s on t h e o t h e r hand, in c lu d e such e le m e n ts a s s i g h t s e e i n g v i s i t s t o museums a n d a n c i e n t monuments, a rc h a e o lo g L c a l d ig s , e t c . New York C i t y 's a t t r a c t i o n s , d e s p i t e i t s crim e and muggLngs, a r e e s s e n t i a l l y i t s v a r i e t y of f a c i l i t i e s , i t s r i c h h i s t o r y and r e p u ta t io n , t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f i t s c u l t u r e , and above a l l t h a t i n t a n g i b l e lo v e - h a t e p u l l w hich i s oommonly r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e "A pple S p i r i t " o r "The B ig A pple". The above c l a s s i f i c a t i o n im p ro v es G r a y 's [1970] taxonomy ty m in im izin g a m b ig u ity and i n so d o in g p ro v id e s a f i n a r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . The fu n d a m e n tal elem ent t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s M e tro lu s t frcm W a n d erlu st i s t h a t M e tro lu s t i s a lw a y s a s s o c i a t e d w ith larg B c i t i e s w h e re a s W a n d erlu st « Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW - 1 2 - i s n o t. Thus t o u r i a n to a West A f ric a n v i l l a g e f o r t h e p urpose c f an a r c h a e o lo g ic a l d i g w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r W a n d erlu st, b u t a s i m i l a r d ig i n If e rls , Los A n g e le s o r London w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d u n d er M e tro lu s t. S im ila ry c u l t u r a l t o u r i a n w ith a view to s tu d y in g t h e Eskimo c u l t u r e i n re m o te A laska w i l l come un d er th e h e a d in g o f W a n d erlu st b u t t h e same ex p e d i t i o n w ould be c l a s s i f i e d a s M e tro lu s t i f th e Eskimo c u l t u r e i s s t u d ie d i n say V ancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, Canada. The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e new c a te g o ry : " M e tro lu s t" i s c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e l a c k o f extrem e s e a s o n a l i ty i n t o u r i a n i n New York C ity and t h e m o tiv a tio n o f t r a v e l e r s who f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t New York C ity , ( s e e page 2 2 .) Tourism i s a unique e x p o r t commodity i n t h e s en se t h a t co n s u n p tio n u s u a lly o c c u rs a t th e pLaoe c f o r i g i n o f t h e p ro d u c t. The p o t e n t i a l oonsvErer i s b ro u g h t t o t h e p ro d u c t i n s t e a d o f t h e p ro d u c t b e in g e x p o r te d t o a d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n o r m a rk e t f o r o o n s u a p tio n p u rp o s e s . I t i s a l e a d in g e x p o r t i n many d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r i e s an d o f f e r s a n avenue f o r a l l e v i a t i n g c h r o n ic f o r e i g n exchange problem s. Wall and M atb ieso n L19823 h a v e n o te d t h a t f o r some c o u n t r i e s such a s T h a ila n d , Kenya, Jam aica, M b x L c o , A ntigua, Hawaii, S p ain an d B arbados, to u r ia n a lre a d y r e p r e s e n t s t h e m ost im p o rta n t i n d u s tr y and e a r n e r of f o r e i g n exchange. t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW F i g 1 A C o n c e p t u a l F ra m e w o rk o f T o u r is i.- [TOURIST: forms b f to u ris m I DESTINATION CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TOURIST E n vironm ental P ro c e s s e s — jJ T o u r is t' L D e s tin a tio n F Economic S tr u c tu r e Type o f T o u r is t A c t i v i t y [ P o l i t i c a l 1____ O rg a n iz a tio n j ^ l e v e l o f U sag eJ— C a rry in g C a p a c ity L evel o f T o u rist!. I S a t i s f a c t i o n | L evel o f T o u r is t Development [ Socio-E conom ic I C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s | S o c ia l S t r u c t u r e & O r g a n iz a tio n IMPACTS OF TOURISM Economic I f -----:— ^ P h y s ic a l - ^ S o c ia l Im pact C o n tro l [^Finance J I n fo rm a tio n C a rry in g C a p a c ity G u id e lin e s E n g in e rm g Management S t r a t e g i e s P o lic y C o n tro ls A dapted from G. W all a n d .S M a th e iso n , T o u rism : E conom ics, P h y s ic a l and S o c ia l Im p a c t, Longman I n c , (New Y o rk ): 1982 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREVIEW Download 0.89 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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