International Relations. A self-Study Guide to Theory

particular theoretical constructions found at the heart of all theories. In other 
words, this unit will present world views by means of the historical under-
standings of science they incorporate.
As mentioned above, scientific world views are perceived as long-time 
persistent patterns of thought about the existence of the world, how to learn 
about the world, what counts as valid knowledge about the world, and the 
methods used to obtain this knowledge. In other words, the focus will be on 
ontological, epistemological and methodological “elements” found in scien-
tific world views. These “elements” are already familiar to you from your 
reading in Unit 2, which introduced ontological, epistemological and meth-
odological assumptions as the core of philosophies of science. 
Our discussion of scientific world views proceeds along the same lines of 
the “elements” of a philosophy of science. However, now the discussion will 
be extended to the realm of philosophical reflections that go far beyond par-
ticular philosophies of science (such as positivism). The focus will be on the 
idea of science as formed and reflected in the history of European/Western 
thought more generally. You will learn how important the early scientific 
world views of Greek antiquity proved to be for the development of Europe-
an science and to what extent our contemporary study of theory in the diverse 
disciplines of the natural and social sciences have been shaped by scientific 
world views that emerged in this historical process. The discussion will also 
improve your understanding of where philosophies of science (such as posi-
tivism) are derived from and which theories they are embedded in. In addi-
tion, this unit will provide a framework to discuss other philosophies of sci-
ence. Finally, this approach will help us to better understand contemporary 
theory building in IR, especially against the background of the diversity of 
theoretical approaches that the so-called positivism-postpositivism debate has 
brought about. 
Please note that, as was the case in Unit 1, the term “scientific” here re-
fers to the general idea of a systematical, methodological study of the world, 

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based on theory and for the purpose of generating human knowledge. In other 
words, the term science itself is not attributed to a particular philosophy of 
science (such as positivism). 
This unit is not intended to provide a comprehensive presentation of the 
European history of philosophical thought. In line with the learning objec-
tives of this book, the discussion will instead draw on selected aspects that 
are necessary for learning about the historical emergence of the idea of sci-
ence. The unit aims to provide you, the readers, with the ability to identify 
the basic lines of philosophical and scientific thought that underlie particular 
theories of IR. This unit will help you to better understand the following: the 
nature of assumptions as starting points for theory building; the specific theo-
retical constructions offered by theories of IR; and the role and status of theo-
ry in IR and the practice of international politics. For those keen on learning 
more deeply about scientific world views in European philosophy, there will 
be a list of recommended supplementary reading at the end of this unit. 
Highly relevant to our learning purposes is a discussion of the idea of 
science as it emerged in the European history of thought. As you learned in 
the previous unit on positivism, during the modern age (positivist) science 
has gained the status of a superior system of providing objective knowledge, 
considered superior to any other systems of knowledge such as religions or 
myths. It also claims superiority over any other understanding of science and 
thus enjoys a very prestigious status in Western societies. However, the 
question of whether or not it is possible to provide “objective” knowledge, 
as well as positivist science’s claim of being able to causally explain and 
predict phenomena, are both highly debated issues. This holds particularly 
true given the complexities of our social, political, economic, technological 
and cultural world. The current economic, financial, environmental, political 
and legitimation crises our world is experiencing, their causes, and the strat-
egies used to “solve” these crises all raise serious doubts about the scientific 
claims of mainstream economic and political science. These and other sci-
ences have driven political, economic and technological processes for long 
periods of time, in fact since the scientific revolution in the 17
th
century. A 
critical reflection and debate on scientific claims has always been part of the 
theoretical controversies in the diverse disciplines but never has so much 
been at stake as in the present moment. The crises are serving as indicators 
that our economy, politics and natural living conditions have been shaken to 
their foundations. Consequently, a general discourse on the role and status 
of science and theory in our society is absolutely inevitable. This applies not 
only to the academic discipline of IR but to international politics as well. At 
the end of this book, we will take up this issue of the current relevance of a 

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discussion of science and you will be invited to actively take part in the de-
bate. 
Last but not least, the lines of argument in the discussion below are, out 
of necessity, based on my personal reading, interpretation and understanding 
of the history of scientific world views. They stem from my subjective selec-
tion of aspects that I have come to perceive as relevant for a better under-
standing of IR theory building. It should therefore be read as an interpretative 
approach, an offer of ideas that intend to provide “food for thought” and to 
invite and encourage critical discussion of IR as a science. The history of Eu-
ropean philosophical thought on science is a complex one and is a real chal-
lenge for students and teachers alike to study. I therefore take responsibility 
for all mistakes and misrepresentations and am happy to receive comments 
and advice on improving the book (see my contact details in the preface).
Step 2: 
Scientific world views 
2.1. Greek Antiquity
Based on the human mind’s ability to create language and to reflect on the 
world, it can be assumed that humans have historically always developed ideas 
about nature, the human being, the seasons, the order of the cosmos and other 
fundamental questions. For example, Bedenig (2011: 19-32) points to early