Investigating physiological and biochemical
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Muhammad Abdul Qayyum UAF 2015 Soil Env Sciences
24 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION One of the most serious and important problem in agriculture is soil salinity. Over 3% of the total land mass of the world is affected by salinity and more than half of the countries on this planet are bearing some quantity of salt-affected lands (Corbishley and Pearce, 2007). Naturally, regions of semi-arid and arid climate have evapotranspiration more than precipitation which typically cause upward movement of salts along with water and hence cause salinity. Thus, most of the countries bearing salinity are in a vast range which extends from Africa to central Asia through Middle East (Corbishley and Pearce, 2007). Within next 25 years, about 30% of arable land is predicted to be lost due to salinity while this loss may be enhanced up to 50% by the year 2025 (Mahajan and Tuteja, 2005; Wang et al., 2003). Currently, out of 1500 mha agricultural land almost 32 mha is affected by salt accumulation (FAO, 2005). On an average, salinity has affected approximately 6% of Asia–Pacific land (FAO, 2006). Pakistan has 62,400 km long canal Indus basin irrigation system (IBIS) which irrigates 20.42 Mha area in the Indus plain. In this irrigation system, almost 16 Mha of land receives 172 billion cubic meter (BCM) of high-quality river water per year (Aslam and Prathapar, 2006). Unplanned and continuous irrigation with canal water has altered the hydrological balance in the irrigated areas of Indus basin. This situation caused a rise in water table in some areas while a decrease in water table depth cause water logging, salinity and soil erosion, in different regions of all the four provinces of Pakistan (Zaka et al., 2005; Aslam and Prathapar, 2006). The severity of problem can be judged by the fact that useful arable land is being degraded by salinity at 40,000 ha per annum (Alam et al., 2000). Obviously, the high salt concentration in soils (soil salinity) reduces the volume of agricultural raw material as well as the quality of products throughout the world (Lauchli and Grattan, 2007) and is of great anxiety for an agriculture based country like Pakistan. 25 In addition to salinization and degradation of arable lands, urbanization, population growth and industrialization have also contributed to the reduction in per capita arable land availability. This reduction also has a negative impact on food production which is not good news for food security of a third world or developing country like Pakistan. Reduction in arable lands has also exerted pressure on the existing forest as these are cleared to balance the loss of arable lands (WRI, 2000). Thus keeping in view the above scenario, two approaches are worth mentioning: (1) Exploring and maximizing the salt tolerant crops, i.e. saline agriculture means living with salinity (2) Using the salt-affected and marginal lands for producing non-conventional crops. Therefore, exploitation of degraded wastelands including salt-affected ones is a practical option for growing plants having economic significance. Several species of non-conventional crops are potentially good and give economic return when grown on salt-affected soils. (Dagar et al., 2004). For example, Isabgol (Plantago ovata), a potential medicinal rabi-crop can be successfully grown on soils having high pH (Dagar et al., 2006). It can also be grown on calcareous degraded land in arid regions irrigating with saline water (Tomar and Minhas, 2004b), also, as an agro-forestry crop with Acacia nilotica with no significant yield reduction (Dagar and Tomar, 2002). Similarly ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.) a potential medicinal plant is moderately salt tolerant (Ashraf and Orooj, 2006). Salt stress adversely effects almost all physiological, biochemical (Munns and James, 2003; Cuartero et al., 2006; Nabati et al., 2011) and molecular processes (Mansour, 2000; Tester and Devenport, 2003) and hence reduce yield. Ultimate effect of salt stress is decrease in soil osmotic potential which, in turn, causes water stress, nutrient imbalances, specific ion toxicity or combination of all these factors (Evelin et al., 2009). Excessive salt accumulation in plants may also cause membranes disorganization, production of toxic metabolites, reduced photosynthesis and nutrient uptake and enhanced ROS production which leads to cell and/or plant death (Sun et al., 2011; Abogadallah, 2010; Chartzoulakis and Psarras, 2005). 26 Reactive oxygen species (ROS) exert the most devastating effect on plant growth under saline conditions and severely hamper the growth and development of plants (Szalai et al., 2009; Zhu, 2001). These are among the main causes of cell damage under all types of stress (Mittler, 2002; Gara et al., 2003; Ali et al., 2011; Bhutta, 2011). When triplet oxygen (atmospheric oxygen) gains extra energy in terms of electrons, it is converted in to a number of reactive oxygen species which severely damage different living cells like proteins, lipids and nucleic acids (Abogadallah, 2011). These reactive oxygen species (also called active oxygen species, AOS) include superoxide anions (O - 2 ), hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), singlet oxygen ( 1 O 2 ) and hydroxyl radicals (OH • ). ROS production occurs in plants during photosynthesis, respiration and photorespiration (Mittler, 2002; Uchida et al., 2002; Asada, 2006; Abogadallah, 2011). NADPH oxidase, amine oxidase and cell wall bound peroxidase also produce ROS (Shalata et al., 2001; Mittler, 2002). ROS production occurs also in roots due to the disruption of electron transport in root mitochondria (Fukao and Bailey-Serres, 2004) which up-regulate the antioxidative system in mitochondria and peroxisomes of roots (Mittova et al., 2004). Two types of mechanisms operate in plant for the removal of ROS (Beak and Skinner, 2003). These include enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems. Enzymatic oxidant system (EAS) consists of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD) while non enzymatic antioxidants include vitamin A, C, E, glutathione, carotenoids and phenolics which protect cells from ROS damage and finally convert ROS into triplet oxygen and water molecule (Jaleel et al., 2009; Gara Download 1.66 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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