Korean Studies, 27. 1


Kory0 in the Tributary System


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Kory 335 as an independent realm

Kory0 in the Tributary System
The usual gauge by which to measure a state’s international standing in
premodern East Asia is the position it occupied in the tributary system. In try-
ing to establish whether Kory0 considered itself a realm, it is of importance to
locate its position in its international environment. Although it has become clear
that there is evidence that the Kory0 ruler was considered to be a Son of Heaven
in his own territory, in order to estimate the real significance of this claim, we
should look at the attitudes of the states surrounding Kory0.
Kory0’s position in its international environment was complicated from
the very beginning. After the Tang dynasty had fallen, foreign relations in East
Asia became increasingly intricate. Until the rise of the Mongols, there would
be no continental dynasty to dominate East Asia to the same extent as the Tang
had been able to do. Kory0, which had come into existence during the down-
fall of the Tang, had difficult choices to make as to its allegiances. While Silla
had been able to make relatively easy choices pertaining to the Son of Heaven
it would serve—there was only the Tang Son of Heaven after all—Kory0 had
to employ swift and astute diplomacy to keep abreast of the fast-changing po-
litical situation in tenth-century East Asia. During the first thirty years of its ex-
istence, it pledged its allegiance to no fewer than three Chinese dynasties.
62
It
can be easily imagined that the absence of one strong and dominant state dur-
ing the early years of Kory0 will have influenced its perception of tributary ties
to no small extent. Despite the flexibility Kory0 showed in establishing diplo-
matic relations, it initially refused to establish official relations with the Liao,
whose expanding empire loomed largely in the north. Ostensibly because of
anger and resentment at the Liao destruction of Parhae in 926, T’aejo Wang K0n
refused to receive Khitan envoys and warned his successors never to trust the
Liao.
63
In 960 Kory0 established tributary relations with the Song Son of Heaven,
holding off Liao encroachments until 993, when the Liao invaded Kory0 and
forced S0ngjong to recognize the suzerainty of the Liao.
64
S0ngjong appreci-
ated the immediate threat the Liao military posed and sensed that there was much
to gain from good relations with the northern dynasty. Also, relations with the
58
k o r e a n s t u d i e s , v o l . 2 7
Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 58


Song were not completely cut off, even when all official relations were broken
off in 996.
65
Unofficial envoys—at least from the side of Kory0, the Song tended
to send official embassies—kept going back and forth. Knowing full well that
Kory0 stood to gain most from recognizing the Liao Son of Heaven, S0ngjong
did so. He then accepted the Liao reign name and had ten young children study
the Liao language at the Liao capital.
66
Kory0’s formal relationship with the Liao
lasted until the reign of Yejong.
67
His investiture in 1108 was the last Liao in-
vestiture of a Kory0 king. It was not until 1142 that Injong would be invested
by the Jin, who had by then demolished the Liao and become the leading power
in East Asia.
68
During this period, which was partly characterized by the transition from
Khitan to Jurchen dominance, there was broad political support for the main-
tenance of unofficial contacts with the Song. Nonetheless, Kory0 was alert to
the possibility of falling out with the Liao. A remonstrating memorial of 1058
precisely states why relations with the Liao were so important. Munjong had
wanted to send an official embassy to the Song, but his plans were shipwrecked
by the vehement criticism of the Secretariat-Chancellery, arguing that estab-
lishing official relations with the Song could only hurt Kory0, since the Liao
had already shown strong signs of suspicion. The memorial concluded with the
self-confident assertion that “since our culture, rites, and music have now been
blossoming for a long time, and since merchant ships bring us rare treasures
every day without fail, we do not need any help from China.”
69
This memorial
thus combined two arguments. The first argument depended on the contempo-
rary international political situation and Kory0’s need for security. The second
argument departed from Kory0’s own achievements.
70
Despite appearances, it
was not only Song culture that enticed Kory0 to maintain relations with the em-
battled Chinese Son of Heaven. Kory0 also played an active role on the East-
Asian political scene.
71
And besides, Kory0 was very much aware of the ac-
complishments of the court under the northern Son of Heaven and the potential
benefits for Kory0 itself.
72
Kory0 tried, as much as it could, to steer its own course, now pledging
allegiance to this dynasty, then to that dynasty. It is therefore easily imagined
that Kory0’s nominal suzerain on the Chinese mainland would be none too
pleased to discover the imperial clothing habits of its vassal, but, rather surpris-
ingly perhaps, Chinese and non-Chinese dynasties were well informed on
Kory0’s imperial ambitions and did not consider it a major problem at all.
73
In
this case, the tributary system presents more of a barrier to understanding than
a helpful tool. As a recent exhaustively documented analysis of the tributary
system has shown (albeit not on purpose), the tributary system functioned in
such a flexible manner that it is hard, if not impossible, to draw one-dimensional
conclusions from seemingly straightforward facts such as hierarchical tributary
relations.
74
Mid-Kory0 diplomacy was characterized by flexible politics, both
r e m c o e . b r e u k e r :
Kory0 as an Independent Realm 
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Korean Studies, 27.1 11/15/04 1:36 PM Page 59


inside and outside of the tributary system. It has been described as pragmatic,
but since Kory0 pragmatism was often tempered by ideologically or culturally
motivated reasons, this label does not fit very well.
75
The motivations behind
Kory0 diplomacy are intricate and complicated, but certainly not as simple as
“revering the Chinese and loathing the barbarians.”
76
Despite its subordinated
hierarchical position in the tributary system, Kory0 played an active role in East-
Asian politics, which explains the efforts both the Song and the Liao kept mak-
ing in order to win Kory0 over, as well as Kory0’s continued relations with the
Song outside of the tributary system.
77
Even in “serving-the-greater,” Kory0’s
attitude was assertive during the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
78
The recep-
tion of imperial envoys (both from the Song and from the Liao) was often
befitting for esteemed guests, but certainly not for representatives of the em-
peror.
79
The maintenance of a micro-tributary system by Kory0 suggests both
an expression of independence and the acceptance of the international order,
but the fact that Kory0 claimed its right to have its own vassals vis-à-vis the
Liao emperor suggests that the orthodox interpretations, which stress the trib-
utary order in dichotomous terms of adherence or rejection, have little validity.
Kory0’s claim of an independent status is much more complicated than this, as
is witnessed by Kim Pu1i (1079–1136), brother to Pusik (1075–1151), in whose
writings similar paradoxical elements appear. In a memorial from 1117 he pe-
titioned Yejong (r. 1105–1122) to conclude a peace treaty with the Jin; in it, he
compared Kory0 with the three most illustrious Chinese dynasties, namely, the
Han, Tang, and Song, and claimed that the majesty of the Son of Heaven (namely,
the Korean monarch) could endure the insult of recognizing a barbarian Son of
Heaven.
80
In advice he gave to the young Injong, Pu1i clarifies the locus clas-
sicus for his apparent belief that Kory0 is a realm unto itself. True to his ortho-
dox, yet reform-minded Confucianism, he quoted both Wang Anshi and Men-
cius and stated that if a country is well governed, it can be a realm unto itself.
81
The import of his argument is twofold. Even in a relatively small country like
Kory0, one could rule one’s own realm. And secondly, this could only be
achieved if self-government was guaranteed by the existence and maintenance
of strong borders, and not mere reliance on the benevolence of the Chinese Son
of Heaven.
82

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