M. Iriskulov, A. Kuldashev a course in Theoretical English Grammar Tashkent 2008

II. Actual division of the sentence in terms of cognitive linguistics. 
In the cognitive approach the problem of actual division of the sentence seems 
to be correlated with the issue of semantic asymmetry of syntactic constructions 
and principles which govern semantico-grammatical accuracy of syntactic 
structures. 
The semantic asymmetry is understood as semantic nonsynonymy of two 
sentences which are the inverse forms of spatial or temporal relations. 
The semantic asymmetry presupposes semantic and grammatical restrictions 
imposed by the language system on the process of sentence-formation, and its 
theme-rheme division accordingly. Compare the sentences: 
a) My sister (F) resembles Madonna (G).
? b) Madonna (F) resembles my sister (G). – (b) sentence seems impossible; 
c) He had two affairs (F) while he was married (G);
? d) He was married (F) through –a-period-containing two affairs of his. – 
impossible.
Restrictions imposed by the language come from the restrictions imposed by 
the conceptual system, by the mechanism of cognitive anchoring, as termed by 
L.Talmy.
Within the cognitive approach syntactic structures are understood as formal 
means by which language represents one concept as a reference point or anchor for 
another concept. According to L.Talmy cognitive anchoring involves the two 
fundamental functions of attention cognitive system, that of the Figure and that of 
the Ground. Thus, The theme-rheme division of the sentence, which is a property 
of the language, is governed by the Figure-Ground Segregation, which is a 
property of the conceptual system. 
Cognitive anchoring and semantic asymmetry is governed by the definitial 
characteristics of Figure and Ground. In linguistic usage they can be characterized 
as follows:
In simple sentence the Figure is a moving or conceptually moving entity 
whose site, path or location needs identification, the Ground is a reference entity 
whose setting identifies the Figure’s path or orientation. On the syntactic level 
Figure and Ground are represented by 2 nominals. In complex sentences the 

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Figure is an event whose location in time needs identification, the Ground is a 
reference event which characterizes the Figure’s temporal location. On the level of 
syntax the Figure-event is represented in the main clause of a complex sentence, 
the Ground-event – in the subordinate clause. Compare the sentences: 
a) The pen (functions as Figure) fell off the table (functions as Ground). 
b) She (Figure) resembles him (Ground). – metaphorical extension to 
nonphysical situations (relational state, for example), can be taken as 
derived from smth. like: She is near him in appearance.
c) He exploded after he touched the button. – “the button-touching-event” is 
Ground (as a fixed, known reference point) and “the explosion event” is 
Figure (as more prominent with respect to the other).
Thus, the semantic asymmetry, and therefore the theme-rheme division of 
the sentence, can be highlighted by choosing objects with different capacities to 
serve as a reference point, and in this respect it is clear why the sentence “My 
sister (F) resembles Madonna (G)” sounds good, while the inverse form “Madonna 
(F) resembles my sister (G)” doesn’t. In simple sentences semantic asymmetry is 
observed in spatial relations between two objects, in complex sentences – in 
temporal, causal and other type of inter-event relations.
The cognitive functions of Figure and Ground govern the process of 
conceptual anchoring, they are incorporated in the grammatical constructs of the 
language system (the Figure-event as appeared in the main clause of a complex 
sentence and the Ground-event - in the subordinate clause) and bring down 
certain restrictions on the process of sentence-formation, and therefore its theme-
rheme division. 
L. Talmy proposes principles, which govern the asymmetric relations between 
two events, as represented in a complex sentence: 
1. Temporal sequence principle says that in a relation of 2 events the earlier 
event is Ground and the later event is Figure. In a full complex sentence the 
Figure-event is in the main clause and Ground-event is in the subordinate 
clause: 
a) She departed (F) after he arrived (G). 
b) He arrived (F) before she departed (G). 
The favored linguistic expression here is that with “after” form. The 
priority follows from the fact that no language will have simpler means for 
expressing “before” than for expressing “after”.
2. Cause-result principle says that in a causal relation the causing event is 
Ground and in a complex sentence is in the subordinate clause and the 
resulting event is Figure and is in the main clause: 
a) We stayed home (F) because he had arrived (G).
The inverse form is impossible: 
b) He arrived (F) to-the-occasioning-of- our staying home. 
3. Inclusion principle governs the relation of “temporal inclusion” between 2 
events, where a temporally containing event is Ground and appears in the 
subordinate clause, a contained event is Figure and appears in the main 
clause of a complex sentence: 

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a) He had 2 affairs (F) while he was married (G). 
The inverse form is impossible: 
b) He was married through (F) –a-period-containing 2 affairs of his.
4. Contingency principle governs the relation of “contingency” between 2 
events. An event which is necessary for a second event acts as Ground and 
appears in the subordinate clause, the second event that is contingent or 
dependent acts as Figure and appears in the main clause of a complex 
sentence: 
a) He dreamt (F) while (the whole time) he slept (G).
but b) He slept (F) while he dreamt. - impossible. 
To sum it all up, the semantic asymmetry of syntactic structures, and therefore 
their grammatical accuracy, is determined by cognitive functions of Figure and 
Ground. Figure and Ground govern the process of conceptual anchoring, they are 
incorporated in the grammatical concepts of the language system (compare the 
principles which govern the semantic asymmetry: the Figure-event as appeared 
in the main clause of a complex sentence and the Ground-event - in the 
subordinate clause) and bring down certain restrictions on the process of sentence-
formation, and therefore its theme-rheme division.