Michael r. Katz middlebury college
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- * * * MICHAEL HOLQUIST Bazarov and Secenov: The Role of Scientific Metaphor in
MIKHAIL BAKHTIN [On Characters' Language] 165 * * * The next form for incorporating and organizing heteroglossia in the novel—a form that every novel without exception utilizes—is the language used by characters. The language used by characters in the novel, how they speak, is verbally and semantically autonomous; each character's speech possesses its own belief system, since each is the speech of another in another's language; thus it may also refract authorial intentions and consequently may to a certain degree constitute a second language for the author. Moreover, the character speech almost always influences authorial speech (and sometimes powerfully so), sprinkling it with another's words (that is, the speech of a character perceived as the concealed speech of another) and in this way introducing into it stratification and speech diversity. Thus even where there is no comic element, no parody, no irony and so forth, where there is no narrator, no posited author or narrating character, speech diversity and language stratification still serve as the basis for style in the novel. Even in those places where the author's voice seems at first glance to be unitary and consistent, direct and unmediatedly intentional, beneath that smooth single-languaged surface we can nevertheless uncover prose's three-dimensionality, its profound speech diversity, which enters the project of style and is its determining factor. Thus the language and style of Turgenev's novels have the appearance of being single-languaged and pure. Even in Turgenev, however, this unitary language is very far from poetic absolutism. Substantial masses of this language are drawn into the battle between points of view, value judgments and emphases that the characters introduce into it; they are infected by mutually contradictory intentions and stratifications; words, sayings, expressions, definitions and epithets are scattered throughout it, infected with others' intentions with which the author is to some extent at odds, and through which his own personal intentions are refracted. We sense acutely the various distances between the author and various aspects of his language, which smack of the social universes and belief systems of others. We acutely sense in various aspects of his language varying degrees of the presence of the author and of his most recent semantic instantiation. In Turgenev, heteroglossia and language 165 From The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin, edited by Michael Holquiest, translated by Michael Holquist and Caryl Emerson. Copyright 1981. By permission of the University of Texas Press. stratification serve as the most fundamental factors of style, and orchestrate an authorial truth of their own; the author's linguistic consciousness, his consciousness as a writer of prose, is thereby relativized. In Turgenev, social heteroglossia enters the novel primarily in the direct speeches of his characters, in dialogues. But this heteroglossia, as we have said, is also diffused throughout the authorial speech that surrounds the characters, creating highly particularized character zones [zony geroev]. These zones are formed from the fragments of character speech [polurec], from various forms for hidden transmission of someone else's word, from scattered words and sayings belonging to someone else's speech, from those invasions into authorial speech of others' expressive indicators (ellipsis, questions, exclamations). Such a character zone is the field of action for a character's voice, encroaching in one way or another upon the author's voice. However—we repeat—in Turgenev, the novelistic orchestration of the theme is concentrated in direct dialogues; the characters do not create around themselves their own extensive or densely saturated zones, and in Turgenev fully developed, complex stylistic hybrids are relatively rare. We pause here on several examples of diffuse heteroglossia in Turgenev. 166 (1) His name is Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov. Some ten miles from the coaching-inn stands a respectable little property of his consisting of a couple of hundred serfs—or five thousand acres, as he expresses it now that he has divided up his land and let it to the peasants, and started a "farm." [Fathers and Sons, ch. 1] Here the new expressions, characteristic of the era and in the style of the liberals, are put in quotation marks or otherwise "qualified." (2) He was secretly beginning to feel irritated. Bazarov's complete indifference exasperated his aristocratic nature. This son of a medico was not only self-assured: he actually returned abrupt and reluctant answers, and there was a churlish, almost insolent note in his voice. [Fathers and Sons, ch. 4] The third sentence of this paragraph, while being a part of the author's speech if judged by its formal syntactic markers, is at the same time in its choice of expressions ("this son of a medico") and in its emotional and expressive structure the hidden speech of someone else (Pavel Petrovich). (3) Pavel Petrovich sat down at the table. He was wearing an elegant suit cut in the English fashion, and a gay little fez graced his head. The fez and the carelessly knotted cravat carried a suggestion of the more free life in the country but the stiff collar of his shirt—not white, it is true, but striped as is correct for morning wear—stood up as inexorably as ever against his well-shaven chin. [Fathers and Sons, ch. 5] This ironic characterization of Pavel Petrovich's morning attire is consistent with the tone of a gentleman, precisely in the style of Pavel Petrovich. The statement "as is correct for morning wear" is not, of course, a simple authorial statement, but rather the norm of Pavel Petrovich's gentlemanly circle, conveyed ironically. One might with some justice put it in quotation marks. This is an example of a pseudo-objective underpinning. (4) Matvei Ilyich's suavity of demeanour was equalled only by his stately manner. He had a gracious word for everyone—with an added shade of disgust in some cases and deference in others; he was gallant, "un vrai chevalier français," to all the ladies, and 166 Citations from Fathers and Sons are from: ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, tr. Rosemary Edmonds (London: Penguin, 1965). was continually bursting into hearty resounding laughter, in which no one else took part, as befits a high official. [Fathers and Sons, ch. 14] Here we have an analogous case of an ironic characterization given from the point of view of the high official himself. Such is the nature of this form of pseudo-objective underpinning: "as befits a high official." * * * MICHAEL HOLQUIST Bazarov and Secenov: The Role of Scientific Metaphor in Fathers and Sons 167 Valentin Kataev tells a marvelous story of how the great Mejerchol'd once developed a plan for putting Fathers and Sons on the screen: "The film was to have begun with a diagram of the human chest—white ribs and, behind them, as if behind dungeon bars, a human heart, beating at first steadily and rhythmically as the law of blood circulation demands, then fluttering and leaping until it stops in a last convulsion ... Bazarov draws a charcoal circle on his chest around the place where his heart beats. With horror he notices that it is love, passion, desire that makes his heart contract. . . ." 168 Mejerchol'd's interpretation of the novel refuses to take Bazarov's Nihilism seriously: "Bazarov a Nihilist? Nonsense [vzdor]!" 169 As Isaiah Berlin made clear in his 1970 Romanes lecture, Turgenev's "artistic reputation is not in question; it is as a social thinker that he is still today the subject of a continuing dispute. " He sees Bazarov not as an ideologue but as a poet; and he even planned to have Bazarov's role in the film played by Majakovskij himself. The film was never made, which is unfortunate because it might have helped to clear up a certain ambivalence that has grown up around Turgenev's reputation. I believe Mejerchol'd was absolutely right in perceiving that Bazarov is more poet than scientist, a position I wish to extend in this paper, in the hope that it not only will provide yet another interpretation of Fathers and Sons, but will in some small measure add to the growing body of work that seeks to offset the currently reigning clichés about Turgenev's status as a writer in the distinctively Russian literary tradition. 170 The most serious charge against Turgenev of this kind would seem to have been made by D. S. Mirsky: "There had always been in Turgenev a poetic or romantic vein ... his attitude to nature had always been lyrical ... even in his most realistic and civic novels the construction and atmosphere are mainly lyrical." 171 What this vision of Turgenev's achievement results in is the ineluctable conclusion that ". . . In his day Turgenev was regarded as a leader of opinion on social problems. Now this seems strange and unintelligible. Long since the issues that he fought out have ceased to be of any actual interest." And then comes the inevitable and invidious comparison: "Unlike Tolstoy or Dostoevsky," or virtually any other important figure of nineteenth century Russian literary culture—"Turgenev is no longer a teacher ... his work has become pure art. . . ." 172 167 From Russian Literature XVI, no. 4 (1984) 359-74. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Publishers. 168 Valentin Kataev, Trava zabven'ja (Moskva 1967), 170. 169 hoc. cit. 170 Cited by V. S. Pritchett, "Turgenev," The New Yorker (August 8, 1983), 90. 171 D. S. Mirsky, "Turgenev," Critical Edition of Fathers and Sons, ed. Ralph Matlaw (New York 1966), 249. 172 Op. cit. 250-251. Not only is Turgenev not a novelist, he is more precisely not a Russian novelist. I take this to mean that he is unlike Tolstoj or Dostoevskij insofar as he is not a thinker: he is precisely what the most characteristic strand of Russian criticism would have most vigorously objected to, i.e., someone who is only an artist, someone who provides merely aesthetic pleasure. And insofar as this is true of Turgenev, he will be perceived as not doing the work of Russian literature as defined by the great Belinskij, whose views continue to shape ideas about the extra-aesthetic importance of the artist. The irony of such a view will become apparent if we remember facts so familiar that their importance is often overlooked. Not only is Fathers and Sons dedicated to Turgenev's old friend Belinskij, the still-invoked conscience of the Russian intelligentsia, but it was as well a central document in the intellectual—not only the artistic or political—life of Russia during one of its most formative periods. The conception of Turgenev as exclusively an artist of a particularly refined sort is usually combined with an indictment of him as a failed man of action. The implication of such a view is that the only area other than literature itself for such a lyricist to demonstrate his seriousness was politics, an area in which Turgenev clearly did not excel. Mirsky in a rather curious echo of Vulgar Sociologism, sums up this view by suggesting that in political importance, Turgenev was "representative of his class ... and of his generation, which failed to gain real touch with Russian realities ... and which, ineffective in the sphere of action, produced one of the most beautiful literary growths of the nineteenth century." 173 Finding in Turgenev "merely" beauty, it is inevitable that Mirsky concludes by saying, "We do not seek wisdom [in Turgenev]." 174 To dispute the Mirskian view of Turgenev as an ineffectual aesthete would require a principled study of the kind only a thoroughly trained Turgenev scholar might carry out. I am not in the position to make such a study. Nevertheless, I would like at least to hint at a relation between Turgenev and one of the major intellectual currents of the modern period, the mind/body duality that has haunted us since at least Descartes. My purpose will be to suggest the further point that Turgenev may be perceived not only as an artist, but in his artistry, as a certain kind of thinker. A thinker not so much about politics as such, but about the politics competing discourses represent as they express competing social currents in the history of the Russian language. In what follows, then, I will try very quickly to sketch two arguments: Turgenev is similar to other novelists and in particular to those Russian novelists from whose company Mirsky would exclude him, in that he uses the medium of the novel to think through important extra-literary problems. One reason we so often fail to see the intellectual, analytical side of Turgenev is because it is assumed the only scope for such activity was the immediate political situation of nineteenth century Russia. But there were other and arguably much more historically important trends of thought—and action— abroad in the same period, and it is in at least one of these, in at least one of his works (Fathers and Sons) that Turgenev's importance both as a thinker and as a figure whose work had consequences in real life should rather be sought. Turgenev, in other words, is the literary equivalent of the proverbial dumb blonde. The particular debate in which Turgenev played such a role is the one concerning the relation between the science of physiology, on the one hand, idealistic concepts of personhood and individuality, on the other. This is a problem that occupies some of 173 Luc. cit. 1. hoc. cit. 174 the best minds— both scientific and literary—throughout the late eighteenth and all of the nineteenth century, indeed up to the present time. My argument may be stated in a number of theses, which I will first list, and then go on to specify. 1) Turgenev occupies a distinctive place in the history of nineteenth century European literature insofar as certain of his works (particularly Fathers and Sons) mark a crucial stage in the movement toward a new perception of nature (and therefore of the place of man in nature) that begins to manifest itself in the middle decades of the nineteenth century, a movement charted in literary history between the poles conventionally called Romanticism, and, at the other extreme, Naturalism. 2) His place in that movement, in order to be appreciated, must be calibrated not only within the closed system of literary history, but rather as a border incident between literary and extra-literary discourses (particularly those of the body sciences). 3) The extra-aesthetic language which is most helpfully invoked if we are seeking Turgenev's unique place in the history of the novel is, then, scientific, not, as is so often assumed, political; and more specifically it is the language of a physiologically grounded psychology that was in the process of formation during the early and middle years of the nineteenth century. 4) The specific way Bazarov and his famous frogs are used in Fathers and Sons is as a means for testing what was this new scientific psychology's major claim, i.e. that thinking is an illusion based on an erroneous division between mind and body. This view held that all aspects of human existence previously ascribed to the individual person's intentions, to his unique soul or psyche, were merely extra-individual manifestations of physiological processes in the human organism. As Bazarov tells the little peasant boys in Chapter V, when they ask him why he is catching frogs: "I shall cut the frog open and see what's going on in his inside, and then, as you and I are much as frogs (only we walk on two legs), I shall know what's going on inside us too.” 5) Fathers and Sons, then, is a kind of literary laboratory for testing certain nineteenth century claims of science. But since Turgenev is a much subtler thinker than, let us say, Zola, Turgenev's version of the roman expérimental is not a laboratory modelled on those in the Rue Gay-Lussac, with their electrical generators and Bunsen burners, but rather a language laboratory. What we get is not a naive application of methods in physiology, nor do we get an equally naive attempt to "attack" such methods. No, Turgenev sees that at the heart of the new somatic definition of man lurks a theory of language—an attempt to get out of words and to the things themselves. What he does is to translate the latent content of scientism into a set of discursive practices which he then tests against other forms of discourse in his novel. 6) Finally, Turgenev may indeed have been ineffectual in the realm of politics. But in the realm of science he was to have at least one important actual consequence: By raising certain questions about Bazarov's physiological theories in his novel, outside the novel he caused Bazarov's double, the great physiologist Ivan Secenov (1829-1905) to ask certain questions whose answers were to have a powerful and lasting effect on later concepts of the somatic structure of the brain and the way that structure relates to human psychology. Although Secenov is precisely Bazarov's contemporary, then, I shall be arguing that if we were to apply Turgenev's own symbolic genealogy, it could be said that Secenov is son to Bazarov's father. But before we can see the relation between Turgenev and Secenov —and the implications of such a relationship for any attempt to assess Turgenev's role as novelist—we must deal with a few preliminary considerations. At a merely anecdotal level, nothing could be simpler than to define relations between Secenov and Turgenev: each respected the other; both at one time or another belonged to the circle around the journal So-vremennik; both spent great stretches of time in Germany and France absorbing the very latest ideas across a broad spectrum of interests, and both shared an almost British liberalism that made their politics appear slightly unreal or wildly eccentric to their more millenarian fellow Slavs. The connection between the two appears even more ineluctable to anyone who has seen the famous photo of Secenov, taken in 1861, the year Turgenev completes Fathers and Sons: we see a fierce-eyed, hirsute young man sitting at his work table in the Medico- Surgical Academy, complete with Bunsen burner, electrical charging mechanism and a laboratory clamp from which are suspended—of course—three frogs. It is less the portrait of an individual man than it is the icon of an era, one of those rare instances that let us actually see the otherwise invisible historical forces shaping whole eras. 175 But if we reach for the deeper meaning Secenov and Turgenev had for each other, we shall have to go beyond their merely personal associations and look (very briefly) into the way each responded to the new challenges raised by Nineteenth Century science to traditional assumptions about man's place in nature. It is the cognitive revolution that took place between a time when nature was felt to reflect man, and a later time in which man was conceived as little more than a reflection of nature that makes the local relationship of Turgenev and Secenov of particular interest. Of all the pejoratives Bazarov uses, none in his eyes is more damning than "romantic." He means by this not merely that Romantics are old-fashioned because they prize the past: as a naturalist, he seeks as well to invoke by this term the particular romantic sense of nature that dominated Europe in the late eighteenth, early nineteenth century. * * * In March of 1860, at the very time Turgenev was at work on Fathers and Sons, Secenov began a series of lectures at the St. Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy. These lectures produced a sensation among not only the students, but all Petersburg. As the historian M. N. Saternikov puts it: "Both the form and the contents of Secenov's lectures produced an immense impression, not only on the academic world, but also on intellectual society in general. [His] manner of speaking was simple and convincing; his method of exposition was absolutely new. With youthful enthusiasm and deep faith in the all-conquering power of Science and Reason ... he spoke not only of what had already been achieved, also of what was yet to be done ... [he produced a large number of students and] we may confidently assert that Secenov is the initiator of the Russian school of physiologists." 176 (I should add that Secenov's work continues to be ranked very high, even in the West: in Boring's definitive History of Experimental Psychology it is said that Secenov was "far ahead of West European thought," and the eminent cyberneticist Walter Rosenblith has called Secenov "a too little appreciated forebear of Norbert Wiener.") 177 175 See: Classics in Psychology: Biographical Sketch and Other Essays, no. tr. {New York 1973), 19. 176 M. N. Saternikov. "The Life of I. M. Secenov," in Classics in Psychology, xvii. 177 Cf. Loren Graham, Science and Philosophy in the Soviet Union (New York 1972), 356. But the aspect of Secenov's achievement I wish to stress has less to do with his specific work on the brain. What I wish to emphasize, rather, is what Saternikov has in mind when he says "The remarkable demonstration with which [Secenov] illustrated his lectures acquainted students with the most recent techniques of scientific experiment and taught them to use the language of facts." 178 In order to proceed with this argument, we shall want to keep two prior assumptions in mind. First, that an interplay between science and literature is possible because both are, in the end, exercises in language. Secondly, that the novel is preeminently the literary genre whose constitutive feature is an artistically organized diversity of social speech types, particularly Fathers and Sons in which the major thematic and structural emphasis is on the ideology of Scientism as it is expressed in the speech practice of the Nihilists. It is not Secenov as a kind of Urfigur for Bazarov, but rather Secenov's "language of facts" that is significant for understanding Turgenev's novelistic practice. It is Scientism as a language, as a discursive practice claiming a unique relation to truth that Turgenev will test in his fiction. Turning to the text of Fathers and Sons, we will notice first of all the most obvious level at which Turgenev contrasts different languages. These would include the large number of what might be called phatic scenes: those encounters in which characters explain to other characters the peculiar meanings of their different idiolects. In Chapter XV we are aware of the growing differences between Arkadij and Bazarov when the latter reproaches the former for interpreting literally his statement about Odincova's situation to the effect that "something is wrong here." Bazarov must explain to his young friend that "something wrong" (ne ladno) means "something right in my dialect and for me. ... " 179 In the following chapter, Bazarov, impressed by the haughty demeanor of Odincova's butler, says to Arkadij, "What grand genrel ... That's what it's called in your set (u vas), isn't it—." 180 When Odincova invites Bazarov for a walk she says "I want you to teach me the Latin names of the wild-flowers. " And Bazarov seeks to mark off the difference between them by insisting on the fact they speak different languages: "What use are the Latin names to you?" 181 Download 5.01 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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