Michael r. Katz middlebury college
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GARY SAUL MORSON Two Kinds of Love+ They discussed at length the question whether marriage was a prejudice or a crime (52 [54]). "I [Arkady] want to devote all my powers to the truth; but I no longer look for my ideals where I did; they present themselves to me ... much closer to hand" (144 [137]). As the title Fathers and Sons seems to invite, this novel is usually treated as an examination of two opposite ideological camps—the "fathers" and the "sons." But it seems to me that there is really a "third ideology" working here, which the title—this time taken as a whole— also seems to adumbrate. I mean the prosaic set of values that center around the family and ordinary life, the life of "fathers and sons" (or "fathers and children," to translate the title literally). Bazarov separates himself from ordinary life. Arkady is offended when Bazarov distinguishes between two sorts of people, the "gods" and the "dolts." "It's not for the gods to bake bricks, in fact!" Bazarov declares (86 [83]). Arkady, who at this point is just beginning to free himself from his discipleship to Bazarov, allows himself to challenge his friend: "Oho!" thought Arkady to himself, and then in a flash all the fathomless depths of Bazarov's conceit dawned upon him. "Are you and I gods, then? At least, you're a god; am not I a dolt then?" "Yes," repeated Bazarov gloomily; "you're still a fool" (86 [83]). Bazarov engages in what might, somewhat anachronistically, be called incipient Raskolnikovism: he divides humanity into the ordinary and extraordinary people, which is one reason why, when Odintsova wants to flatter Bazarov, she tells him that he is not ordinary and therefore should not consider living an "ordinary" life. In a larger sense, the argument between the ordinary or prosaic and the extraordinary or dramatic pervades this book. In this respect, the nihilism of the younger generation and the romanticism of the older generation are equally far from prosaic values. Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich, both distant from family life, argue over dinner, and we may, in the process of following the exciting and dramatic discussion, forget that a third set of values is tacitly present. These values may be found in the hospitality of the meal, in Nikolai Petrovich's attempts to be friendly with his son, in Fenichka's pride in her child, and in the warm and kindly traditions of the household itself. Throughout the novel, prosaic values constantly figure as a quiet background to the major ideological conflicts. By their very nature, they do not call attention to themselves. The same set of values forms the background at the Bazarovs's: When Arkady and Evgeny talk on the haystack about ultimate questions, they are interrupted by Bazarov's father, who more than anyone (except, perhaps his wife) represents a devotion to home, to family, and to immediate neighbors, especially the peasants, whom he treats as part of his family. While Arkady and Bazarov argue, Bazarov's parents overwhelm them (and us) with the ordinary kindnesses they take to extraordinary degrees. On the way to the duel, Bazarov notices a peasant, who has gotten up early to attend to his daily tasks. "He at least got up for work, while we ... ," Bazarov reflects (125 [119]). They meet the same peasant after the duel, and Pavel Petrovich asks, "What do you imagine that man thinks of us now?" (128 [121]). Here Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich, the two ideologists, are linked in their foolish dramatic episode, while silently opposed to both are the rounds of daily life. In the presence of a person whose goals are "close at hand," Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich are not as different as they have imagined. The same contrast between ideological argument in the foreground and a third set of values in the background quietly opposed to both camps is also written into the scenes at Odintsova's. Bazarov and Odintsova argue about art and the ideology of love, about nihilism versus romanticism, but something else that they do not notice is happening. In the background, Katya, with her quiet sensitivity, her appreciation of daily rhythms, and her attentiveness to small gestures of sensitivity and kindness, plays the key role. She has a wisdom that her sister does not sense and which Arkady comes to learn only gradually. He does not "fall in love" with her suddenly; he does not yield to "passion," as Bazarov does, nor to a fascination with the mysterious and romantic, as Pavel Petrovich once yielded to his "sphinx," the elusive "Princess R." Instead, Arkady, who has absorbed much more of the homely prosaic values of his mother and father than he realizes, comes to appreciate Katya bit by tiny bit, while she is still in the background and his attention is focussed mainly on Odintsova. They did not talk to each other in Anna Sergeyevna's presence; Katya always shrank into herself under her sister's sharp eyes; while Arkady, as befits a man in love, could pay attention to nothing else [but Odintsova] when near the object of his passion; but he was happy only with Katya. He felt that he was unable to interest Odintsova. ... With Katya, on the other hand, Arkady felt at home; he treated her condescendingly, did not discourage her from expressing the impressions made on her by music, reading novels, verses, and other such trifles, without noticing or realizing that these trifles were what interested him too (72 [70]). Two kinds of love are debated in Fathers and Sons. The passage immediately following this one is the paraphrase of Bazarov's contempt for the "madness" of "Toggenburg and all the minnesingers," that is, it deals with the romantic ideal of love as something transcendent, extraordinary, fatal, mysterious, poetic, and infinitely distant from ordinary life. By contrast, Arkady and Katya learn a prosaic love, in which they feel not transported but at home. It leads them to a love of ordinary, daily, family life, the life that Arkady's father and mother lived, a life as far from the mad pursuit of mysterious princesses as it is from nihilism. In his interesting study of Fathers and Sons, David Lowe stresses the importance of the Arkady-Katya plot—Lowe calls it the "comedic plot"—as few have done. 114 Turgenev's novel, I think, participates in a long tradition of opposing family love to romantic love; it is a document in the argument stated so forcefully in Denis de Rougement's classic study, Love in the Western World. If I differ from Lowe, it is in seeing this plot not as another endorsement of romantic love, but as quite the opposite. In this novel, romantic love is attacked openly by nihilism, and it seems to triumph in that contest. But in its encounter with a quieter enemy, prosaic love, romantic love meets a more formidable opponent. 115 114 David Lowe, Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1983). De Rougement, it will be recalled, took his stand firmly on the side of ordinary, happy, family love, and against passion, romance, and the love of "troubadours and minnesingers," which leads to a 115 Denis de Rougement, Love in the Western World, revised edition, trans. Montgomery Belgion (New York: Harper and Row, 1974). Originally written in 1938 and revised in 1954, de Rougement's book is a classic text of "prosaics." pursuit of mystery and the mystical, of drama and Desire. In his opening chapter "Behind the Vogue of the Novel," de Rougement links this contest of loves to the very problematic of the genre. To the extent that the novel endorses "the divine rights of passion," he finds the genre pernicious. "Happy love has no history," de Rougement's first page insists. Here he alludes to the very same saying—"Happy people have no history"— that appears in the notebooks for Anna Karenina and resulted in the most famous first sentence of any novel: "All happy families resemble each other; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way." Happy, ordinary families resemble each other, because nothing dramatic happens to them and so they have no story; but unhappy families all have a story, and each story is different. And for de Rougement and Tolstoy, this means that plot is an index of error. Romantic loves seeks events and obstacles, and imagines that real life is to be found in passion and struggle. "The prospect of a passionate experience has come to seem the promise that we are about to live more fully and more intensely" (Love, 16), de Rougement observes. By contrast, ordinary, family love seeks the quiet, uneventful chores of daily life; and it values not the ideal, but the present. Prosaic love thrives in a realm without drama, and therefore usually is, at best, the background to a novel's great events. Its lesson is perhaps summed up in that old Yiddish curse: "may you live in interesting times." In Fathers and Sons, it is Katya who best understands prosaic love. What she values, and what she achieves with Arkady, is, as she puts it, the happiness of the "tame" and not the excitement of the "wild." It is a love that values most of all "confidential intimacy" (135 [128]). She loves music, but does not believe in romantic love songs (137 [131]). Above all, she deals with people by being quietly and constantly "observant" and sensitive. Identifying love with romantic love, Odintsova, and the newly passionate Bazarov, never understand that Arkady and Katya have grown to love each other. The older couple believe that the younger pair treat each other as brother and sister. Odintsova and Bazarov are therefore shocked to learn that Arkady and Katya plan to marry. Recognizing only one kind of love, they are blind to the quiet signs of the other. At first, Arkady thinks that "passion" most interests him, but he does not notice that really he is most occupied with prosaic love, a love that values "trifles"—that is, what appear like trifles from the perspective of Romance. The prosaic love to which Arkady rises—one would not say "falls into"—is that love which cherishes the small things in life, the love of the "tame." One is moved here to think of that grand defender of the prosaic, Tolstoy, who, perhaps more than anyone else, appreciated that ordinary moments are what matter. In one of his most remarkable essays, Tolstoy illustrated his point by retelling the story of how the painter Bryullov once corrected a student's sketch. The pupil, having glanced at the altered drawing, exclaimed: "Why, you only touched it a tiny bit, but it is quite another thing. " Bryullov replied: "Art begins where the tiny bit begins.” That saying is strikingly true not only of art but of all life. One may say that true life begins where the tiny bit begins—where what seem to us minute and infinitely small alterations take place. True life is not lived where great external changes take place—where people move about, clash, fight, and slay one another—it is lived where these tiny, tiny, infinitesimally small changes occur. 116 This line of thinking informs Tolstoy's great novels. In War and Peace, it appears in countless forms. Pierre at last learns not to seek meaning in the distance, but in the familiar people and small events always before his eyes. History, Tolstoy reiterates, is made without a system by countless small incidents of ordinary people at ordinary moments, and not, as most narratives tell us, by great men at important moments. Prosaics is one of the great "anti-Napoleonic" arguments of Russian literature. In Anna Karenina (as in Family Happiness), real love and the truly meaningful events of life are ordinary and lie within the family and the small community. At the beginning of Anna, a scene appears that recalls Arkady's hesitation between "passion" for the grand Odintsova and prosaic appreciation of Katya. Kitty has strong feeling for both Levin and Vronsky, and both feelings might be called "love." Kitty does not yet know whether both can be called "love" and cannot yet decide which to choose: When she mused on the past, she dwelled with pleasure, with tenderness, on the memory of her relations with Levin. ... In her memories of Vronsky there always entered a certain element of awkwardness, though he was in the highest degree well bred and poised, as though there was some false note—not in Vronsky, he was very simple and nice, but in herself, while with Levin she felt perfectly at ease. But, on the other hand, as soon as she thought of the future with Vronsky, there arose before her a perspective of brilliant happiness; with Levin the future seemed misty. 117 With Levin she is at ease, at home; with Vronsky there is the prospect of brilliance and adventure. Tolstoy soon makes it crystal clear that the better love lies in the familiar and in the family, and not in "brilliant happiness." Happiness—real, prosaic happiness—is never brilliant. Kitty learns this, and rapidly becomes wise in her prosaic love because she has absorbed these lessons from her own wonderful family, much as Arkady achieves a wise happiness when he trusts the truths he absorbed from the rhythms of life at Marino. Odintsova and Bazarov play a tragic scene about the impossibility of happiness, and, overhearing it, Arkady and Katya resolve on a happiness that the "extraordinary" people will never understand. But Odintsova and Bazarov do, eventually, come to bless the ordinary love they can neither share nor truly appreciate. In the novel's last chapter, we learn that "in the small parish church two weddings had taken place quietly, and almost without witnesses—Arkady and Katya's, and Nikolai Petrovich and Fenichka's" (162 [153]). Small, quietly, without witnesses—this is how prosaic love expresses itself. Odintsova gives her sister and brother-in-law a handsome present, and even Bazarov— now dead—has earlier recommended that Arkady "follow the example" of the jackdaw, which is, as natural history instructs, "a most respectable family bird" (149 [141]). Pavel Petrovich, who was the obstacle to his brother's marrying Fenichka, has given his blessing to that marriage, too. 118 116 Leo Tolstoy, "Whv Do Men Stupefy Themselves?", Recollections and Essays, trans. Avlmer Maude (London: Oxford UP, 1961), p. 81. And so the novel sets up a parallel structure, with the proponents of great abstract theories and grand romantic passions yielding to those cherishing the quiet virtues of daily life. 117 Leo Tolstoy, Anna Karenina, the Garnett translation edited by Leonard J. Kent and Nina Berberova (New York: Random House, 1965), pp. 51-52. 118 Lowe is quite perceptive about the roles of Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich as "blocking characters," p. 20. Both sets of values, the romantic and the prosaic, have shaped the development of the novel, as both Tolstoy and Turgenev knew. (De Rougement, perhaps because he remembers the French tradition most, seems to forget this. ) Tolstoy has Anna read— and not especially like— an "English novel" on the train ride during which Vronsky is pursuing her; the novel appears to be three parts Trollope and one part George Eliot, that is, it is a novel that deeply affirms prosaic values. "If we had a keen vision and feeling of all ordinary human life," wrote George Eliot, "it would be like hearing the grass grow and the squirrel's heart beat, and we should die of that roar which lies on the other side of silence." 119 Fathers and Sons is not. It is just as hesitant, ambiguous, and inconclusive about this intra-generic debate as it is about the inter-generic debate between the novel and the utopia or tract. Trollope's belief that goodness, meaning, and morality are to be found in small communities and daily acts of honesty, rather than in grand gestures, romantic choices, or great theories, is recorded in all his great novels. But Anna Karenina prefers French, romantic novels; she imagines herself a heroine of one and is pleased when her friends (for the time being) praise her as such. Anna chooses romantic over prosaic love and suffers; at the same time, Tolstoy chooses the prosaic English novel over the romantic French one. In the context of the genre's dialogue about love and daily life, Anna Karenina is an extreme partisan of one side. The subtlest critic of Turgenev's position in this debate, Elizabeth Cheresh Allen, takes as her starting point the difference between Turgenev and other novelists, such as Eliot, Trollope, and Tolstoy, with whom he is often grouped. 120 Specifically, Turgenev believes in what Allen calls "composure," a word to be taken in two senses here: first, an ethics of calm and restraint, and second, an individually imposed discipline of aesthetic control over one's life, which must be carefully and tastefully "composed," like a work of art. Allen perceptively connects Turgenev's subtle use of meta-literary devices to his belief in composure. The very act of telling— composing—an artful story has moral value, and so Turgenev (as well as many of his characters who are great storytellers) calls attention to it. In portraying the storyteller, and calling attention to himself as storyteller, Turgenev gives us what Allen calls "the image of the individual exercising control over experience"; we see in art the successful attempt "to instill form where there was none. Turgenev's characters love narratives because they love the sensation of control over experience that the act of creation conveys." Allen calls the latter group Realists (in a narrow and specific sense; as distinguished from realists in a broader sense). Eliot, Trollope, and Tolstoy share an ethical sense foreign to Turgenev; for they see the ground of ethics in the activities of specific small communities and regard individual goodness as possible only in the realm of inherited customs. In the terms I have been using, Allen's Realists explore and endorse the prosaic view of life. By contrast, Turgenev sees communities, large and small, as a threat to an always precarious individuality and sense of identity. Individuals reach their greatest virtue and potential when they seek their salvation on their own. 121 119 George Eliot, Middlemarch (New York: Random House, 1984), p. 189. If Allen is correct, then Turgenev's metaliterary devices work in the opposite way from Tolstoy's. For Tolstoy, they serve to discredit the artifice and 120 Elizabeth Cheresh Allen, Beyond Realism: Turgenev's Poetics of Secular Salvation (Stanford: Stanford UP, 1991). 121 Allen manuscript, pp. 55-56. illusoriness of aesthetic control in a world that is fundamentally messy and in which value is to be discovered only in aesthetically imperfect experience. As we have seen, Turgenev's metaliterary devices are subtly omnipresent in Fathers and Sons, and they bespeak precisely the set of values that Allen describes. We sense those values above all in the voice that tells the story, with its cultivated taste and its refined sensibility. Not that this narrator is incapable of appreciating prosaic values, too. At some points in his description of Fenichka, Arkady, and Katya, he seems not only to admire those values but even to be jealous of them. But that is just the point: he is jealous, because prosaic happiness is incompatible with his own most cherished beliefs. It must be sacrificed for something more important, namely sophistication, aesthetic control, composure. The narrator admires prosaic activities as if such happiness were possible only to limited people. He is fully capable of treating Bazarov as an intellectual equal, but he writes from a position as far above Arkady and Katya as, let us say, Balzac's narrator is above Eugenie Grandet. He writes from afar. Katya understands family and "perfect peace"; the narrator gives her beliefs their due, but still seems to sense in them the air of rural sybaritism, of Gogol's "Old World Landowners" and, perhaps most of all, of Oblomovka, the vegetable idyll. Oblomov, which was published in 1859 and occasioned some remarkable criticism (especially Dobroliubov's essay on "Oblomovitis") is probably an important "subtext" for the prosaic plot in Fathers and Sons. The narrator finds a life of small deeds distasteful; however wrong-headed, the noble Bazarov is more to his taste. We recall that Odintsova takes "aesthetic control" over life to almost pathological extremes ("order is needed in everything," she repeats). "Nothing was repulsive to her but vulgarity, and no one could have accused Bazarov of vulgarity" (61— 62 [60]). The narrator feels the same way. Both fathers and sons believe in "great deeds," they merely disagree about what deeds are great. But Katya is equally far from both sides, because she prefers small deeds and a tame life. The narrator understands this position, understands above all the warmth of the life it makes possible, but clings unsurely to his disapproval of prosaic routine as deadening and lethargic. And he holds fast to his appreciation for beautiful forms and noble deeds, whatever their cost. Just as Turgenev's narrator never resolves the quarrel between nihilism and the novel, so he never decisively chooses between the prosaic and the aesthetic ideals. Condescending admiration, ironic blessing, and ambiguous appreciation mark his tone. We might consider two passages in which he describes prosaic happiness, one at the very beginning of the book, and one at the very end. When Nikolai Petrovich is waiting at the station for his son's arrival, the narrator tells us of his marriage to Arkady's mother: Leaving the civil service in which his father had by favor procured him a post, [Nikolai Petrovich] was perfectly blissful with his Masha, first in a country villa near the Forestry Institute, afterwards in town in a pretty little flat with a clean staircase and a rather chilly drawing room. ... The young couple lived very happily and peacefully; they were scarcely ever apart; they read together, sang and played duets together on the piano; she tended her flowers and looked after the poultry-yard; he sometimes went hunting, and busied himself with the estate, while Arkady grew and grew in the same happy and peaceful way. Ten years passed like a dream (2-3 [5]). In the epilogue, the dream has returned: The Kirsanovs, father and son, have settled down at Marino; their fortunes are beginning to mend. Arkady has become zealous in the management of the estate, and the "farm" now yields a fairly good income. Nikolai Petrovich has been made one of the mediators appointed to carry out the emancipation reforms, and works with all his energies; he is forever driving about over his district; delivers long speeches (he maintains the opinion that the peasants ought to be "brought to comprehend things," that is to say, they ought to be reduced to a state of exhaustion by the constant repetition of one and the same words); and yet, to tell the truth, he does not give complete satisfaction either to the refined gentry, who talk with chic or with melancholy of the emancipation (pronouncing it as though it were French), nor to the uncultivated gentry, who unceremoniously curse "tha' 'muncipation.' " He is too soft- hearted for both sets. Katerina Sergeyevna has a son, little Nikolai, while Mitya runs about merrily and talks fluently. Fenichka, Fedosya Nikolaevna, after her husband and Mitya, adores no one so much as her daughter-in-law, and when the latter is at the piano, she would gladly spend the whole day at her side (164 [155]). A remarkable play of tones characterize these passages. We sense the narrator's perceptiveness of social forms, practices, and values at every moment; we never forget his sophistication, his infinite superiority over Nikolai Petrovich, to whom, however, he is indulgent. Nikolai Petrovich is "blissful with his Masha" and more than content with a life of duets and the poultry-yard; does the narrator's voice emphasize the value or the limitedness of this happiness? When he calls the life "a dream," is his point their happiness or the sleepiness of that way of living? In the second passage, we are also given a picture of bliss—family happiness at its best—tinged with patronizing irony, that at moments seems to verge on ridicule, for example, in the reminder that this is supposed to be an English-style "farm" and in the reference to the word-bludgeoned peasants. Taken together, these two passages, from the first and last chapters, frame the novel with an ambiguous image of prosaic happiness. "The Kirsanovs, father and son, have settled in Marino" (162 [155]). This sentence not only alludes to the title and to the prosaic understanding of "generations" but also recalls Kirsanov's first wife, after whom he has named Marino. In this novel about "fathers and sons" (or "fathers and children"), this passage calls attention to the person left out of the title—to the mother, who also becomes identified with traditions, the land, and country mores that form the desired backdrop for a prosaically virtuous life. The epilogue tells us next of Pavel Petrovich, and his fate, too, comments obliquely on the narrator's own values. For no one is so much the ideologue of the romantic and the aesthetic as Pavel. His life, wasted by his pursuit of a mysterious woman, of course resembles that of so many Turgenev heroes, if not of Turgenev himself. We do not need such references beyond the text of this novel, though, to recognize that Pavel Petrovich resembles its author. Both, for example, regard self-control as the mark of respect for human dignity and obligations. Of course, Pavel Petrovich is not as truly sophisticated as he thinks he is, and he lacks the narrator's real insight into people. He seems, in fact, to play the role of a caricature of the narrator and to serve as the author's honest attempt to concede what his own values often become in practice. Those values turn Pavel Petrovich into a living corpse. "His handsome, emaciated head, the glaring daylight shining full upon it, lay on the white pillow like the head of a dead man. ... and indeed he was a dead man" (134 [128]). This line has special irony because it takes place shortly after Pavel Petrovich has survived the duel with Bazarov. But Pavel is dead anyway, and we can say that this novel has two deaths. It also has two funereal closings. We have already discussed Bazarov's parents at his graveside. Just before, we are told how Pavel Petrovich lives abroad, impressing everyone with his fine aristocratic manners; how he lives pointlessly, lives posthumously. "One need but glance at him in the Russian church, when, leaning against the wall on one side, he sinks into thought, and remains long without stirring, bitterly compressing his lips, then suddenly recollects himself, and begins almost imperceptibly to cross himself . . ." (165 [156]). It is almost as if he is celebrating his own funeral service. What survives at the end of this novel? Two things: the Kirsanov family and the story in which they appear; fathers and children and Fathers and Children; ordinary virtues and an extraordinary act of storytelling. Which one we are to value more highly remains entirely unclear. Download 5.01 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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