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ies.ccsenet.org 
International Education Studies 
Vol. 13, No. 6; 2020 
156 
did research on how cultural factors influence the development of learner autonomy. 
In short, researchers and scholars agree on that the influencing factors are like intertwining matrix that determine 
the development mechanism of learner autonomy. No matter what perspective that researchers take to analyze the 
influencing factors, language teachers, to a large extent, play crucial roles in the development and fostering of 
learner autonomy.
3. Research on Teacher Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning 
The idea of teacher autonomy arises partly from a shift in the field of teacher education from a focus on the teacher 
as a conduit for methods devised by experts to a focus on the teacher as a self-directed learner and practitioner 
(Benson, 2011). It was Little’s (1995) paper that first brought the term into language education. What Little (1995) 
contributes is the insightful application from practice in classrooms to the theoretical construct and exploration of 
teacher autonomy.
Just as the difficulty in defining learner autonomy, it is also not easy to define teacher autonomy. Xu (2007) 
explains why it is very difficult to define the concept of teacher autonomy. It is because language teacher has 
multi-roles to play in language teaching and learning. In the first place, language teacher plays the role as an 
instructor to the learners. In the second place, language teacher is also a teacher researcher and a learner as well. 
Different researchers emphasize different aspects of teacher autonomy, thus have different definitions. To Little 
(1995, p. 179), teacher autonomy is teacher’s “capacity for autonomous learning”, which is shown in teacher’s 
“personal responsibility”, “continuous reflection”, “analysis of degree of affective and cognitive control” and 
“exploiting freedom” in the teaching process. 
Similarly, McGrath (2000) defines teacher autonomy as “self-directed professional development and freedom 
(from control by others)”. McGrath (2000) emphasizes teacher’s “control” on the professional development. 
Likewise, Smith (2003, p. 4) defines teacher autonomy as “professional action and professional development”. 
Smith (2003) further explains the dimensions relating to “professional action” and “professional development”. 
Thavenius (1999) explained teacher autonomy in relation to learner autonomy. According to Thavenius (1999, p. 
160), teacher autonomy refers to language teacher’s “ability” and “willingness” to help students take responsibility 
for their own learning. Thavenius (1999) points out that an autonomous teacher will reflect on his/her role and 
make changes to help learners become independent and autonomous. 
Taking the stages of teacher development into consideration, Vieira (2008, p. 200) defines teacher autonomy into 
two parts: “teacher-as-learner autonomy” and “teacher-as-teacher autonomy”. This definition sheds light on 
teacher education programs. The research on teacher autonomy should consider the different phases of teacher 
development. 
Huang & Benson (2007, p. 35) define teacher autonomy as “professional attribute”. It involves the “capacity of 
control” over the second/foreign language teaching process, and “capacity for self-directed professional 
development”. 
From the review of relevant literature, Han (2013, 2017) puts forward a comprehensive definition for language 
teacher autonomy. According to Han (2013, 2017), language teacher autonomy can be defined as “the professional 
attribute” of language teacher, which involves two aspects: language teacher’s “professional freedom”, language 
teacher’s “ability/capacity and willingness to take action for self-directed professional development”. In other 
words, Teacher autonomy is embodied and exercised in language teachers flexibility to cope with both external 
and internal constraints for the benefits of (second/foreign) language learning, professional ambitions and motives 
to exert his/her full potential and capacity for self-directed professional development, and realization to develop 
learner autonomy to achieve lifelong learning.