Part theoretical backgrounds of using case studies for developing critical thinking of school learners

PART 1.THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS OF USING CASE STUDIES FOR DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING OF SCHOOL LEARNERS.

1.1. Theoretical grounding of critical thinking.
The term ‘critical thinking’ goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey, who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind.³
A liberal education paradigm, which believes in teaching students how to think rather than what to think, places a special emphasis on developing a student's critical thinking abilities.
A student who is taught to think critically usually grows curious about the world around him or her. Students that have a deep and sincere sense of curiosity will desire to analyze and comprehend facts and occurrences. They develop their own well-informed, frequently unconventional ideas during the process, which enhances their creativity. All critical thinkers will occasionally use their creativity in both their professional and personal lives. They will typically be able to unleash their creative potential as they seek solutions in a logical and pragmatic way.
Self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking are the fundamental components of critical thinking. A critical thought is one that is conducted in a self-directed manner. The current problem is internalized, and it is well understood from an impartial standpoint. The most important aspect of learning is critical thinking since it helps students reflect on and comprehend their own points of view. This ability aids a pupil in comprehending the world via their own observations and insights. Because they are aware that the end is the product of a cognitive process that produces outcomes, it helps learners become self-assured and confident. Additionally, students develop self-assurance and the capacity to learn from their errors, two skills that are essential in both their personal and professional life.
It helps learners in developing self-assurance and confidence because they are conscious of the fact that the end result is the result of a cognitive process that yields outcomes. Students also gain confidence in themselves and the ability to learn from their mistakes, two traits that are crucial in both the personal and professional spheres.
Critical thinking fosters allied life skills such as organizational skills, planning, open-mindedness, communication skills among others. Critical thinking equips you to face issues in both the personal and professional spheres with ease since it is a life skill in and of itself. It promotes self-assurance and independence, helping to mold successful lifestyles. One who has the ability to think critically will be more productive in all areas of life since they will learn from their failures. Critical thinking not only describes the ability to think according to the laws of logic and probability, but also the ability to apply these skills to real-life problems that are not content-independent. It also boosts creativity and improves how we use and manage our time. You may comprehend yourself more deeply by using critical thinking. It will offer you an opportunity to be objective, less emotional, and more open-minded as you appreciate others’ views and opinions.
There is no standard, universally accepted, all-inclusive framework or set of criteria by which to describe or evaluate critical thinking⁴. Critical thinkers possess the following characteristics: they are “outcome-driven, open to new ideas, flexible, willing to change, innovative, creative, analytical, communicators, assertive, persistent, caring, energetic, risk-takers, knowledgeable, resourceful, observant, intuitive, and ‘out of the box’ thinkers⁵.
According to Giancarlo and Facione, critical thinking is a self-directed and well-organized cognitive process that leads to high-quality findings and decisions, which can be realized through the evaluation, investigation, measurement, and reformulation of thinking. Universities should teach students how to think rather than what to think. Critical thinking is a process that takes time to master. University professors must be conscious of the need for transformation in order to adapt their teaching approaches to their students' learning, as their style of thinking may develop rigid routines in their teaching practices.
Educational scholars to refer to the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to becoming a critical thinker use the word ‘dispositions’ generally. Some writers recommend using the term 'virtues' to describe this aspect of a critical thinker. Although they are character qualities, the virtues in issue involve the person's methods of thinking rather than the person's ways of behaving toward others. They are intellectual qualities rather than moral virtues. They are broad tendencies, proclivities, or dispositions to think in certain ways in specific situations that can be explanatory. Sceptics contend that there is no evidence for a distinct mental foundation for the habits of mind that contribute to critical thinking, and that positing such a basis is pedagogically misguided⁶. Critical thinking dispositions, regardless of their status, require motivation for their early creation in a kid, which might be external or internal. The force of habit will increasingly become vital in maintaining the disposition as youngsters mature⁷. However, mere habit is unlikely to preserve critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must appreciate and enjoy applying their knowledge and talents to solve problems for themselves. They must be dedicated to and enthusiastic about research. A person's critical thinking disposition may be limited to certain types of challenges. For example, one may be receptive to scientific topics but not to religious concerns. Similarly, one can be confident in one's capacity to reason about theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not about the optimal design for a guided ballistic missile⁸.
If one does not see a problem that has to be addressed, one will not be able to think critically. To be a critical thinker, one must be consistently alert to one's environment, noting not just what one perceives but also causes of confusion in messages received and one's own views and attitudes⁹.
Inquiry requires work, and it requires an inward drive to engage in it. Thus, the ability to analyze critically necessitates mental energy and effort. What can provide that energy? Inquiry is a passion, or perhaps simply a habit. According to Hamby (2015), the willingness to question is the core critical thinking virtue that incorporates all others.
A dogmatic approach will make it difficult to think critically. A person who clings steadfastly to a "pro-choice" perspective on the legal status of induced abortion, for example, is unlikely to address seriously the question of when an unborn child obtains a moral right to life. Thus, open-mindedness is required for critical thinking, in the sense of being willing to investigate problems to which one already has an answer but to which new evidence or reasoning can compel one to answer otherwise. Paul (1981) advocates open-mindedness toward other worldviews and suggests a dialectical method to integrating such viewpoints as vital to what he refers to as "strong sense" critical thinking. Haran, Ritov, and Mellers (2013) discovered in three studies that actively open-minded thinking, which includes "the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one's own," led study participants to acquire information and thus make accurate estimations.
Critical thinking requires knowledge in addition to dispositions and abilities: knowledge of critical thinking ideas, knowledge of critical thinking principles, and knowledge of the subject matter of the thinking. From the critical thinking abilities given in the preceding part, we can extract a short list of ideas whose comprehension contributes to critical thinking. Understanding the distinction between observation and inference is required for observational abilities. Understanding the principles of ambiguity and vagueness is required for questioning abilities. Understanding the distinction between conclusive and defensible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction) as well as the distinction between necessary and sufficient circumstances is required for inferential ability.
Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings. Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. Employers prioritize the ability to think critically—find out why, plus see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability throughout the job application process. Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information. Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches. To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

Critical thinking skills are critical to success. As teachers, it is our responsibility to teach our students this new way of thinking. Critical thinking helps us be more thoughtful in our actions and make better decisions. Teaching students to think critically is possible at any age but requires patience and lots of practice. New habits take time to form, so do not give up on your child when they do not immediately grasp the concept

According to Glaser (1941), Critical thinking needs understanding of logical inquiry and reasoning process. However, a review of the preceding section's list of talents reveals that some of them may be gained and exercised simply by practice, potentially supervised in an educational context, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of a phenomena or occurrence requires considering all possible causal contributors, but it appears that implementing this idea in one's behavior is more essential than being able to describe it.
Critical thinking on a subject requires substantive understanding of the area in issue. Critical thinking skills are not a magical elixir that can be applied to any situation by someone who is unfamiliar with the facts pertinent to that topic.