Piotr Leonidovich Kapitza, 9 July 1894 8 April 1984
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a n d K a z a n , 1 9 3 4 -4 6 T h e I n s titu te fo r P h y sic a l P ro b le m s (see re fe re n c e s G 7 a n d G 2 8 ) w as in p a r t a lm o s t a C h in e s e c o p y o f th e M o n d w ith a lo n g m a g n e t h a ll a n d a d ja c e n t re s e a rc h ro o m s , a liq u e fie r ro o m w ith a lig h t ro o f a n d o f c o u rse m u c h o f th e o rig in a l M o n d e q u ip m e n t o r d u p lic a te s , su c h as th e d is tin c tiv e -lo o k in g c e n tra l s w itc h b o a rd a n d th e d is tr ib u tio n b o a rd s in e a ch ro o m . H o w e v e r, in o th e r re s p e c ts th e a c c o m m o d a tio n w as o n a r a th e r g r a n d e r scale th a n th e M o n d . T h e D ir e c to r ’s office w as im m e n se , th e r e w as a larg e m e e tin g h a ll a n d c o n s id e ra b le office sp ace. T h o u g h th e a d m in is tra tio n w as in e v ita b ly la rg e r th a n in th e M o n d , K a p itz a s u c c e e d e d in k e e p in g it to a m in im u m b y e lim in a tin g m u c h o f th e e la b o ra te p a p e r w o rk in v o lv e d in p la n n in g a n d fin an ce th a t w as u su a l in m o s t S o v ie t in s titu te s . H e w as fo n d o f say in g th a t o v e r-e la b o ra te p la n n in g in re s e a rc h w as r a th e r like a d o c to r h a v in g to p re s c rib e m e d ic in e fo r an illn e ss h is p a tie n t w o u ld h a v e in a y e a r ’s tim e . In a r e p o r t to th e P ra e s id iu m o f th e A c a d e m y o f S c ien c e s (G 2 8 ) h e said: ‘T h e F in a n c e p e o p le w a n te d to in tro d u c e th e so -c a lle d th e m a tic a c c o u n tin g w h e re b y e x p e n d itu re w as re p o r te d in d e ta il fo r each line o f re s e a rc h . I n m y c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith th e C o m m is s a ria t I asked: “ W h e n lo o k in g a t a R e m b ra n d t p ic tu re are y o u really in te re s te d in th e g re a t a r tis t’s e x p e n d itu re fo r b ru s h e s a n d canvas? T h e n w h y are y o u so in te re s te d in th e c o st o f e q u ip m e n t a n d m a te ria ls w h e n you c o n s id e r re s e a rc h ? ” A fru itfu l re s e a rc h is w o rth in c o m p a ra b ly m o re th a n th e e x p e n d itu re in v o lv e d in it. T h e cost o f re se a rc h in m o n ey te rm s is in c o m m e n s u ra b le w ith its c u ltu ra l v alu e. I asked: “ H o w m u c h fu n d s in th e C o m m is s a ria t’s o p in io n sh o u ld Isaac N e w to n h av e b e e n giv en fo r his w o rk w h ic h c u lm in a te d in th e d isc o v e ry o f u n iv e rs a l g ra v ita tio n ? ” Y et th e C o m m is s a ria t re m a in e d a d a m a n t . . . a n d I th in k th e y w o u ld h av e g a in e d th e u p p e r h a n d w ere it n o t fo r th e in te rv e n tio n o f th e U .S .S .R . C o u n c il o f P e o p le ’s C o m m issa rs. F in a lly o u r I n s titu te w as g iv en a sim p lified fin ancial sy ste m w h ic h sav ed th e d ire c to r fro m e v e ry d a y tro u b le s a n d e n d le ss “ c o m b in a tio n s ” o f w o rk . U n d e r th e n e w sy ste m , fo r ex a m p le, th e in s titu te e m p lo y s a sin gle b o o k k e e p er, a n d w h e n w e are s h o rt- h a n d e d he finds tim e to h e lp us in te s tin g e q u ip m e n t, ta k in g re c o rd s a n d m ak in g m e a s u r e m e n ts .’ on November 29, 2017 http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Downloaded from 354 Biographical Memoirs T h e I n s titu te w as a ttra c tiv e ly site d w ith g a rd e n s a n d p a rk s a ro u n d it, a n d th e livin g q u a rte rs looked o u t on a te n n is c o u rt, w h ic h b ecam e a sk a tin g rin k in w in te r. T h e r e w as a m a g n ific e n t h o u se close by fo r th e K a p itz a s, w h ic h th e R u ssia n s called th e ‘C o tta g e ’ ( u n d e r th e im p re ssio n th a t th is w as th e E n g lish w o rd for any d e ta c h e d ho u se) even th o u g h th e h o u se looked m o re like a sm all palace. N o t only w as th e I n s titu te well e q u ip p e d , b u t it also p ro v id e d a h ig h s ta n d a rd o f tec h n ic a l assistan ce. In d e e d K a p itz a h a d an e x tra o rd in a ry flair fo r p ic k in g go od p e o p le to assist h im . T h e g lassb lo w e r, A. V. P e tu sh k o v , w as a v irtu o s o w h o loved th e ch a llen g e o f a difficu lt p ro b le m . S im ila rly , th e se n io r m e c h a n ic s M in a k o v a n d Y akovlev, a n d K a p itz a ’s p e rso n a l a ssista n t S. I. F ilim o n o v , w h o la te r g o t a d o c to ra te a n d b ecam e an im p o rta n t m e m b e r o f th e scientific staff, w ere all m a s te rs o f th e ir craft. A n o th e r key fig ure w as K a p itz a ’s se cre ta ry , O leg P isarz h e v sk i, w h o w as able to sh ie ld K a p itz a fro m m a n y a d m in is tra tiv e ch o res. L a te r he left to b eco m e a scientific jo u rn a lis t an d w as re p la c e d by P avel R u b in in , a m an of m a n y p a rts , w ho again w as w ell able to deal w ith m a n y m a tte rs on his o w n in itia tiv e . T h e m a in th e m e s o f th e I .F .P . for its first 20 years o r so w ere e sse n tia lly th e sam e as th o se o f th e M o n d : m a g n e tis m a n d low te m p e ra tu re p h y sic s, th o u g h late r th e scop e w as e x te n d e d to in c lu d e p lasm a p h y sics, w h ic h b e c am e K a p itz a ’s c h ie f p e rso n a l in te re s t. H is first p ro je c t (44) in M o sco w w as to e x te n d his e a rlie r Z e e m a n effect e x p e rim e n ts to th e th re e fo ld h ig h e r m a g n e tic fields o f th e d y n a m o m e th o d . O n ce again th e e x p e rim e n ts co n firm e d th e v a lid ity o f th e th e o ry u p to th e h ig h e st fields an d n o th in g v ery e x c itin g tu rn e d u p , b u t th is w o rk w as a m o ra le b o o s te r in d e m o n s tra tin g th a t th e C a m b rid g e e q u ip m e n t w as able to w o rk ju s t as effectively in its new e n v iro n m e n t. I t w as also so m e w h at o f a sw an so n g b ecau se th is w as th e last tim e th e h ig h field e q u ip m e n t was u sed. I t re m a in e d , h o w ev er, e n s h rin e d in its m a g n e t hall a n d b ecam e esse n tia lly a m u se u m piece to show to v isito rs. In p a ra lle l w ith th is h ig h field w o rk , ra p id p ro g re ss w as b e in g m ad e in c o m p le tin g th e cry o g en ic facilities, an d K a p itz a took u p tw o new lines of rese a rc h th a t b ecam e his m ain p re o c c u p a tio n fo r th e n e x t te n years. O n e o f th ese, th e stu d y o f th e tra n s p o rt p ro p e rtie s o f h e liu m II (liq u id h e liu m below its Appoint) led to a series of re m a rk a b le d isco v eries an d th e aw ard o f tw o N o b e l prizes: one to L a n d a u fo r his th e o ry o f q u a n tu m liq u id s, b a sed largely on K a p itz a ’s e x p e rim e n ts a n d th e o th e r, v ery b e la ted ly , to K a p itz a h im self. T h e seco n d line of rese a rc h w as m o re tec h n ica lly o rie n ted : th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a new a n d m o re efficient m e th o d of liq u e fy in g air a n d h en ce, by fra c tio n a l d istilla tio n , o f m a n u fa c tu rin g oxygen on an in d u stria l scale. K a p itz a ’s in te re s t in liq u id h e liu m w as stim u la te d by th e K e e s o m s ’ d iscovery (1936) of th e e x tra o rd in a rily h ig h th e rm a l c o n d u c tiv ity of h e liu m II a n d by th e e x p e rim e n ts o f A llen, P eierls & U d d in (1937), w h ich sh o w ed a n o n lin e a r d e p e n d e n c e o f h e a t flow on te m p e ra tu re on November 29, 2017 http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Downloaded from
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g r a d ie n t. T h i s led h im to th e id ea th a t th e h e a t tr a n s p o r t m ig h t be a sso c ia te d w ith c o n v e c tio n , b r o u g h t a b o u t b y an e x tre m e ly low v isc o sity , r a th e r th a n c o n d u c tio n . T o o b se rv e su c h a low v isc o sity , h o w e v e r, th e liq u id flow m u s t b e th r o u g h v e ry fine c h a n n e ls , o th e rw is e it w o u ld b e g o v e rn e d e n tire ly b y tu r b u le n c e , a n d to ach iev e th is K a p itz a s tu d ie d th e ra d ia l flow u n d e r g ra v ity o f th e liq u id b e tw e e n tw o o p tic a l flats se p a ra te d b y a g ap o f o r d e r 1 p m o r less. T h e re s u lt w as th a t th e v isc o sity w as in d e e d m a n y o r d e r s o f m a g n itu d e less th a n h a d b e e n in fe rre d fro m p re v io u s e x p e rim e n ts in w h ic h th e flow m u s t h av e b e e n t u r b u le n t ra th e r th a n la m in a r. I n d e e d K a p itz a w as ab le to set o n ly an u p p e r lim it to any p o ssib le v isc o sity a n d s u g g e ste d , b y an a lo g y w ith s u p e rc o n d u c tiv ity , th a t b e lo w th e Appoint liq u id h e liu m b e c a m e a ‘s u p e rf lu id ’. B y c o in c id e n c e , sim ila r re s u lts w e re b e in g o b ta in e d in C a m b rid g e b y A llen & M is e n e r a t th e sam e tim e , th o u g h e n tire ly in d e p e n d e n tly . T h e i r flow w as th r o u g h fine c a p illa rie s r a th e r th a n th r o u g h a n a rro w g ap a n d th e y to o f o u n d o n ly an u p p e r lim it (c o m p a ra b le to K a p itz a ’s re s u lt) to any p o ssib le v isc o sity . T h e C a m b rid g e g ro u p first le a rn t o f th e M o sco w e x p e rim e n ts fro m W . L . W e b s te r, w h o h a d b e e n v isitin g K a p itz a , a n d sh o w e d C o c k c ro ft th e n o te K a p itz a h a d s e n t to
w ro te to K a p itz a a b o u t th e C a m b rid g e w o rk a n d s e n t a n o te o f A llen a n d M is e n e r ’s re s u lts to
in w h ic h th e y c o m m e n te d th a t K a p itz a ’s e x p la n a tio n o f th e h ig h h e a t c o n d u c tiv ity b y c o n v e c tio n w as p ro b a b ly too sim p le . T h e tw o n o te s a p p e a re d to g e th e r ((43) a n d A llen & M is e n e r 1938), th o u g h th e a p p e n d e d d a te s o f s u b m is s io n (3 a n d 22 D e c e m b e r 1937) im p ly a slig h t p r io r ity fo r K a p itz a . D u r in g th e s h o rt re m a in in g tim e b e fo re th e in te r r u p tio n o f th e w a r, an in te n s e e ffo rt b o th in M o sco w a n d in th e W e st w e n t in to try in g to u n d e r s ta n d th e b e h a v io u r o f h e liu m I I m o re fu n d a m e n ta lly . I m p o r ta n t c o n tr ib u tio n s w e re m a d e b y A llen & Jo n e s, w h o d isc o v e re d th e th e r m o m e c h a n ic a l (‘f o u n ta in ’) effect; b y H . L o n d o n , w h o p re d ic te d th e in v erse m e c h a n o c a lo ric effect; b y D a u n t & M e n d e ls s o h n , w h o d e m o n s tra te d th is in v erse effect; a n d b y T is z a , w h o p ro d u c e d a p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l tw o -flu id th e o ry , th o u g h w ith o u t an y s o u n d fu n d a m e n ta l b asis. T h e decisive re s u lts w ere, h o w e v e r, o b ta in e d in a series o f in g e n io u s e x p e rim e n ts by K a p itz a (47, 48). I t w as th is w o rk th a t e n a b le d L a n d a u (1941) to d ev elo p a fu n d a m e n ta l q u a n tu m th e o ry o f liq u id h e liu m th a t p ro v id e d a rig o ro u s b asis fo r th e tw o -flu id id ea a n d also led to im p o rta n t n e w p re d ic tio n s . T h e m a jo r re s u lt o f th e e x p e rim e n ts w as to sho w th a t h e a t flow w as a c c o m p a n ie d by m e c h a n ic a l flow. T h u s w h e n h e a t flow ed fro m a closed b u lb c o n ta in in g h e liu m I I th ro u g h a c a p illa ry in to a b a th o f h e liu m I I , a lig h t v a n e s u s p e n d e d o p p o site th e m o u th o f th e c a p illa ry c o u ld be seen to d eflect. A r a th e r s p e c ta c u la r d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e effect, in v o lv in g a m a s te rp ie c e o f P e tu s h k o v ’s g lassb lo w in g a rt, w as p ro v id e d by a m in ia tu re re a c tio n tu rb in e c o n sistin g o f six ca p illa rie s ra d ia tin g o u t o f a b lac k e n e d closed b u lb a n d b e n t n e a r th e ir e n d s to p o in t r o u n d th e c irc u m fe re n c e of on November 29, 2017 http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Downloaded from
356 Biographical Memoirs th e circle. T h is w hole ‘s p id e r ’, as K a p itz a called it (in sp ite of its en to m o lo g ical in ad e q u a c y ), w as m o u n te d on a n e e d le p iv o t a n d w h en lig h t sh o n e on th e b u lb th e s p id e r b eg an to sp in ra p id ly , u p to 120 re v ./m in , in rea c tio n to th e liq u id flow ing o u t o f its legs. T h is ou tflow o f liq u id a c c o m p a n y in g h e a t flow im m e d ia te ly raised th e q u e s tio n o f how th e a m o u n t o f liq u id in th e closed b u lb w as c o n serv e d . A t first K a p itz a p ro p o se d th a t th e re w as a c o m p e n s a tin g flow in w a rd s re s tric te d to a th in lay er close to th e cap illary w all an d h a v in g a d iffe re n t h eat c o n te n t fro m th e b u lk liq u id b ecause o f p ro x im ity to th e w all. H o w e v er, a m o re c o n v in c in g e x p la n a tio n w as p ro v id e d by L a n d a u ’s th e o ry , a c c o rd in g to w h ich th e inflow ing liq u id w as th e su p e rflu id c o m p o n e n t o f th e tw o -flu id e n sem b le. T h is c o m p o n e n t e x e rte d n o force on th e cap illary o r th e su s p e n d e d vane a n d c a rrie d no e n tro p y , w hile all the e n tro p y of th e liq u id w as c o n c e n tra te d in th e o u tflo w in g n o rm a l c o m p o n e n t th a t deflected th e vane o r m ad e th e s p id e r ro ta te . In his seco nd stu d y (48) K a p itz a u sed a so m e w h at d iffe re n t e x p e rim e n ta l a rra n g e m e n t in w h ic h liq u id c o u ld be m ad e to flow in to a b u lb c o n ta in in g a h e a te r an d th e rm o m e te r th ro u g h a v ery n a rro w c h a n n el (a gap b e tw e en flats, as in his s u p e rflu id ity e x p e rim e n ts). H e fo u n d th a t for sufficiently low p o w e r in th e h e a te r th e re w as no te m p e ra tu re differen ce b e tw e en in sid e an d o u tsid e an d in th is reg im e th e p o w e r in th e h e a te r w as d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e rate o f m ass flow in to th e b u lb . T h e d e ta ile d analysis of th ese e x p e rim e n ts p ro v id e d a q u a n tita tiv e co n firm a tio n of th e tw o- fluid th e o ry a c co rd in g to w h ic h o n ly th e s u p e rflu id c o m p o n e n t, c a rry in g no e n tro p y , co u ld flow in to th e b u lb . In th e co u rse of th ese stu d ie s K a p itz a also d isco v ered th a t if h e a t flows fro m a solid su rface in to h e liu m II th e re is a te m p e ra tu re d isc o n tin u ity at th e surface. T h is has com e to be k n o w n as th e ‘K a p itz a b o u n d a ry effect’ an d has b een th e su b je c t of m u c h stu d y in p o stw a r years. A ll th is w ork was b ro k e n off in 1941 w h en th e S o viet U n io n w as in v ad e d , an d K a p itz a h im se lf d id n o t c o n tin u e it a fte r th e w ar. H o w ev er, he d id actively e n co u rag e fu rth e r w ork an d tw o o f th e m o st strik in g new p re d ic tio n s of L a n d a u ’s th e o ry w ere co n v in c in g ly co n firm e d in his In s titu te . O n e was th e ex istence o f ‘seco n d s o u n d ’, essen tially a te m p e ra tu re ra th e r th a n a p re ssu re w ave, as E. M . L ifsh itz (1944) p o in te d o u t, w h ic h w as d e m o n stra te d by P eshk o v (1944). T h e o th e r was an eleg an t an d d ire c t d e m o n stra tio n of th e tw o -flu id th e o ry by A n d ro n ik a sh v ili (1946), w ho show ed th a t th e m o m e n t of in e rtia of a pile o f closely p ack ed disks w as en h a n ce d by only th e n o rm a l c o m p o n e n t o f th e liq u id b e tw e en th e discs. A n e n te rta in in g a c co u n t o f all th is w ork is given in A n d ro n ik a s h v ili’s (1980) m em o irs. K a p itz a ’s o th e r m ajo r rese a rc h effort at th is tim e w as th e d e v e lo p m e n t of a new m e th o d o f liq u e fy in g air, w ith a view to sim p lify in g an d ch e ap e n in g th e larg e-scale p ro d u c tio n of o xygen fo r in d u stria l use. T h e m eth o d s th e n in use achieved th e final cooling by the Jo u le —'T h om son on November 29, 2017 http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Downloaded from
Piotr Leonidovich K apitza 357
effect, w h ic h in v o lv es h ig h p re s s u re s , so th a t th e m a c h in e ry w as in e v it ab ly b u lk y a n d e x p e n siv e . K a p itz a (45, P I 3) p ro p o se d in ste a d th e use o f an e x p a n sio n tu r b in e , re q u ir in g o n ly a b o u t 5 a tm , to cool th e air all th e w ay to its liq u e fa c tio n te m p e ra tu re , a n d sh o w ed th a t w ith a n ovel ra d ia l-a x ia l d e sig n a h ig h e r efficiency c o u ld b e ach ie v e d th a n w as p o ssib le w ith th e c o n v e n tio n a l im p u lse ty p e o f tu rb in e . T h e w o rk in g o u t o f th e w h o le sc h em e in v o lv e d a p ro fo u n d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f b o th p h y sic a l a n d e n g in e e rin g p rin c ip le s , a n d th e su ccessfu l c o n s tru c tio n o f a la b o ra to ry -s c a le liq u e fie r in less th a n 2 y e a rs w as a c o n s id e ra b le a c h ie v e m e n t. T h e m a c h in e d e liv e re d a b o u t 30 kg o f liq u id a ir p e r h o u r a fte r a s ta r t- u p tim e o f o n ly a b o u t 20 m in a n d w ith an e x p e n d itu re o f 1.2 k W h k g - 1 , a go o d p e rfo rm a n c e even b y to d a y ’s s ta n d a rd s . A n im p o r ta n t p a rt o f th e d esig n w as h o w to o v e rc o m e th e in sta b ilitie s asso c ia te d w ith th e v e ry fast ro ta tio n o f th e tu rb in e ro to r. T h e analy sis in v o lv e d w as p re s e n te d in a se p a ra te p a p e r (46) a n d th e m e th o d s w ere p a te n te d ( P I 2, P I 6). P. B. M o o n (1978) in h is R u th e rfo rd L e c tu re , m a in ly a b o u t o th e r a p p lic a tio n s o f h ig h -s p e e d ro to rs, c o m m e n ts e n th u s ia stic a lly o n th e elegance o f K a p itz a ’s analysis, w h ic h he fo u n d d ire c tly a p p lic a b le to his o w n w o rk . S h o rtly a fte r R u ssia e n te re d th e w ar, th e I .F .P ., to g e th e r w ith m an y o th e r A c a d e m y in s titu tio n s , w as e v a cu a ted to K a z a n , w h ere th e e q u ip m e n t w as set u p in th e U n iv e rs ity , a n d on e o f th e m ain efforts w as th e ra p id d e v e lo p m e n t o f an in d u stria l-s c a le p la n t fo r ox yg en p ro d u c tio n b a se d on th e e x p a n sio n tu rb in e m e th o d . I t w as a re m a rk a b le a c h ie v e m e n t th a t in sp ite o f th e v ery difficult c o n d itio n s (lack o f fuel, e x tre m e sh o rta g e o f food , etc.) a larg e-scale p ilo t p la n t w as successfu lly c o m p le te d d u rin g th e tw o years th a t th e e v a cu a tio n lasted . K a p itz a w as a p p o in te d h e a d o f a n ew g o v e rn m e n t d e p a rtm e n t d ealin g w ith oxygen p ro d u c tio n a n d a fte r th e r e tu r n fro m ev a cu a tio n in 1943 h e w as also in ch a rg e o f a fac to ry b e in g b u ilt at B alash ik h a n e a r M osco w . A ll th is w o rk re s u lte d in a n u m b e r of p a te n ts ( P I 4—P I 8). H is d e sig n o f e x p a n sio n tu rb in e has p ro v e d to be th e basis o f m u c h o f th e w o rld ’s in d u stria l p ro d u c tio n o f oxygen a n d his p io n e e r w o rk is still g rea tly re sp e c te d b y in d u stria l e n g in eers. K a p itz a received m an y official rec o g n itio n s o f his ach ievem en ts: ele c tio n as a full A cad em ician in 1939, S ta lin p riz e s in 1941 a n d 1943, O rd e rs o f L e n in in 1943 a n d 1944, an d fo r his oxygen w o rk th e title of H e ro o f S o cialist L a b o u r to g e th e r w ith a th ir d O rd e r o f L e n in an d th e H a m m e r a n d Sickle g o ld m ed al in M ay 1945. B u t soon a fte rw a rd s th e re w ere o m in o u s signs th a t all w as n o t w ell. T o q u o te A n d ro n ik ash v ili (1980):
‘A ll so rts o f o d d th in g s b eg an to h a p p e n in th e In s titu te in th e s p rin g o f 1946. C o m m issio n s k e p t a rriv in g to in v estig ate th e a c tiv ities o f th e In s titu te a n d th e n th e sta tu s o f th e co m m issio n s got h ig h e r w ith th e arriv al of M in iste rs. T h e y b eg an to in v estig ate on November 29, 2017 http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Downloaded from
358 Biographical Memoirs K a p itz a ’s oxy g en p ro je c t. T h e y spoke b a d ly o f th e fac to ry at B a la sh ik h a — n o t p ro d u c tiv e e n o u g h , u n e c o n o m ic a l . . . late in m e e tin g its ta rg e ts etc . . All th is c u lm in a te d in th e s u m m e r of 1946 in a c u rt a n n o u n c e m e n t on th e b u lle tin b o a rd th at: ‘P. L . K a p itz a , h a v in g sh o w n a cav alier a ttitu d e to b o th S o v iet an d fo re ig n a c h ie v e m e n t in th e te c h n o lo g y o f o x yg en p ro d u c tio n an d h a v in g failed to m ee t th e sc h e d u le d d a te s fo r in tro d u c in g new in sta lla tio n s in to th e m e ta llu rg ic a l in d u s try , is reliev ed o f his d u tie s as D ire c to r o f th e I n s titu te fo r P h y sica l P r o b le m s .’ I t is likely, h o w e v e r, th a t th is su d d e n tu r n a b o u t in K a p itz a ’s fo rtu n e s o c c u re d fo r q u ite d iffe re n t reaso n s th a n th o se officially s ta te d , th o u g h no d o u b t th e fact th a t K a p itz a h a d tro d d e n on m a n y toes in p u ttin g th ro u g h his o x y gen p ro je c t also p lay ed its p a rt (see G 8 6 ). T h e real rea so n w as p ro b a b ly K a p itz a ’s refu sal to w o rk in th e o rg a n iz a tio n set u p u n d e r B eria (th e n h ead of th e M in is try o f In te rn a l A ffairs, w h ich c o n tro lle d th e K .G .B .* ) to d ev elo p th e S o v iet ato m b o m b im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e A m e ric a n b o m b s h a d b een e x p lo d e d (see, for in sta n c e , Y o rk 1976). K a p itz a is said to have w ritte n to S ta lin th a t B eria w as ‘like th e c o n d u c to r of an o rc h e s tra w ith th e b a to n in his h a n d b u t w ith o u t a s c o re ’. B eria w a n te d to a rre s t K a p itz a fo r su ch in su b o rd in a tio n , b u t S ta lin in his u n p re d ic ta b le w ay, p e rh a p s b ec au se he a d m ire d K a p itz a ’s co u rag e, v eto ed th is p ro p o sa l a n d said d ism issal w o u ld be sufficient. T h is w as n o t K a p itz a ’s first b r u s h w ith th e K .G .B ., a n d p e rh a p s th e m e m o ry o f th a t e a rlie r occasio n m ay have ran k le d a n d also p lay ed a p a rt in his d ism issal. D u rin g th e g re a t p re w a r p u rg e s L a n d a u w as a rre s te d in 1938 an d K a p itz a sh o w ed g rea t co u ra g e by in te rv e n in g on his beh alf. H e w ro te to S ta lin saying th a t his w o rk co u ld h a rd ly go on w ith o u t L a n d a u an d late r sen t a re m in d e r to M o lo to v . E v e n tu a lly he w as s u m m o n e d b y a h ig h -ra n k in g K .G .B . official w h o k e p t try in g to offer K a p itz a a fat do ssier. K a p itz a h o w ev er su cceed ed in o u tfa c in g h im , saying he u n d e r sto o d n o th in g a b o u t legal tec h n ica litie s, a n d in sistin g th a t th o u g h L a n d a u m ay have h ad a sh a rp to n g u e he w as c e rtain ly no spy. L a n d a u w as in d ee d soon released and m an y years la te r in a trib u te fo r K a p itz a ’s 70th b irth d a y w ro te (1964): ‘T h e s e years [the late 1930s] are m e m o ra b le to m e fo r a n o th e r b u t v ery sad reaso n . B ecause o f a s tu p id d e n u n c ia tio n I w as a rre s te d and accu sed of b e in g a G e rm a n spy. N o w I can so m e tim e s even find th is fu n n y , b u t th e n it w as no jo k e. I s p e n t a year in p ris o n a n d it w as clear th a t I c o u ld n ’t last a n o th e r 6 m o n th s — I w as sim p ly dy in g . K a p itz a w e n t to th e K re m lin an d a n n o u n c e d th a t he w o u ld have to leave his * T h e fa m ilia r n a m e K .G .B . w ill b e u se d th r o u g h o u t, th o u g h in fa c t it w as c a lle d th e N .K .V .D . in th e 1930s a n d M .G .B . in th e e a rly 1950s. on November 29, 2017 http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Downloaded from
Piotr Leonidovich K a p itza 359
I n s titu te if I w a s n ’t rele ase d . I w as rele ase d . I t is h a rd ly n e c e ssa ry to say th a t su c h an a c tio n in th o se y e a rs re q u ir e d n o little c o u ra g e , g re a t h u m a n ity a n d c ry s ta l-c le a r h o n e s ty .’
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