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Andrew Heywood Political Theory Third E
particularly in the light of the achievement of universal suffrage and the development of the welfare state. For example, Gramsci (see p. 84) emphasized the degree to which the domination of the ruling class is achieved not only by open coercion but also by the elicitation of consent. He believed that the bourgeoisie had established ‘hegemony’, ideological leadership or domination, over the proletariat, and insisted that the state plays an important role in this process. Other Marxists have found in Marx himself the more sophisticated notion that the state can enjoy ‘relative autonomy’ from the ruling class and so can respond at times to the interests of other classes. Nicos Poulantzas (1973) portrayed the state as a ‘unifying social formation’, capable of diluting class tensions through, for example, the spread of political rights and welfare benefits. However, although this neo-Marxist theory echoes liberalism in seeing the state as an arbiter, it nevertheless emphasises the class character of the modern state by pointing out that it operates in the long-term interests of capitalism and therefore perpetuates a system of unequal class power. The most radical condemnation of state power is, however, found in the writings of anarchists. Anarchists believe that the state and indeed all forms of political authority are both evil and unnecessary. They view the Politics, Government and the State 81 82 Political Theory Marxism Marxism as a theoretical system developed out of, and drew inspiration from, the writings of Karl Marx. However, ‘Marxism’ as a codified body of thought came into existence only after Marx’s death. It was the product of the attempt by later Marxists to condense Marx’s ideas and theories into a systematic and comprehensive world view that suited the needs of the growing socialist movement. However, a variety of Marxist traditions can be identified, including ‘classical’ Marxism (the Marxism of Marx), ‘orthodox’ Marxism or ‘dialectical materialism’, the mechanistic form of Marxism that served as the basis for Soviet communism, and ‘Western’, ‘modern’ or ‘neo’ Marxism, which tend to view Marxism as a humanist philosophy and are sceptical about its scientistic and determinist pretensions. The cornerstone of Marxist philosophy is what Engels called the ‘materialist conception of history’. This highlights the importance of economic life and the conditions under which people produce and reproduce their means of subsistence, reflected, simplistically, in the belief that the economic ‘base’, consisting essentially of the ‘mode of production’, or economic system, conditions or determines the ideological and political ‘superstructure’. Marxist theory therefore explains social, historical and cultural development in terms of material and class factors. The basis of the Marxist tradition is Marx’s teleological theory of history, which suggests that history is driven forward through a dialectical process in which internal contradictions within each mode of production are reflected in class antagonism. Capitalism, then, is only the most technologically advanced of class societies, and is itself destined to be overthrown in a proletarian revolution which will culminate in the establishment of a classless, communist society. Marxism has constituted for most of the modern period the principal alternative to liberalism (see p. 29) as the basis for political thought. Its critique of liberalism amounts to an attack on individualism and the narrow concern with civic and political rights, on the grounds that it ignores wider social and historical developments and thereby conceals the reality of unequal class power. Liberalism is thus the classic example of bourgeois ideology, in that it serves to legitimise capitalist class relations. Nevertheless, modern Marxists, repelled by the Bolshevik model of orthodox communism, have sometimes sought to blend Marxism with aspects of liberal democracy, notably political pluralism and electoral democracy. Marxist theories have influenced feminism (see p. 62) and provide the basis of socialist feminism, which highlights links between capitalism and patriarchy. Marxism, further, provided the basis for critical theory (see p. 279), which attempted to blend Marxist political economy with Hegelian philosophy and Freudian psychology. Attempts have also been made to fuse Marxism with certain rational choice theories (see p. 246), notably in the form of so-called analytical Marxism. The intellectual attraction of Marxism has been that it embodies a remarkable breadth of vision, offering to understand and explain virtually all aspects of social and political existence and uncovering the significance of Politics, Government and the State 83 processes that conventional theory ignores. Politically, it has attacked exploitation and oppression, and had a particularly strong appeal to disadvantaged groups and peoples. However, Marxism’s star has dimmed markedly since the late twentieth century. To some extent, this occurred as the tyrannical and dictatorial features of communist regimes themselves were traced back to Marx’s ideas and assumptions. Marxist theories were, for instances, seen as implicitly monistic in that rival belief systems are dismissed as ideological. The crisis of Marxism, however, intensified as a result of the collapse of communism in the revolutions of 1989–91. This suggested that if the social and political forms which Marxism had inspired (however unfaithful they may have been to Marx’s original ideas) no longer exist, Marxism as a world-historical force is effectively dead. Although so-called ‘post-Marxists’ have attempted to salvage certain key Marxist insights by trying to reconcile Marxism with aspects of postmodernism (see p. 7), in renouncing historical materialism and class analysis they have, arguably, abandoned the very ideas that made Marxist theory distinctive. Key figures Karl Marx (see p. 373) The breadth and complexity of Marx’s own writings has made it difficult to establish the ‘Marxism of Marx’. A distinction is sometimes drawn between the ‘young Marx’ and the ‘mature Marx’. Marx’s early writings portray him to be a humanist socialist, concerned about alienation, the commodification and depersonalisation of labour under capitalism, and interested in human self-realisation under communism. However, in his later writings, Marx undertook a highly detailed examination of the economic conditions of capitalism, leading some to describe him as an economic determinist and the progenitor of later orthodox Marxism. Friedrich Engels (1820–95) A German industrialist and life-long friend and collaborator of Marx, Engels elaborated Marx’s ideas and theories for the benefit of the growing socialist movement in the late nineteenth century. He emphasised the role of the dialectic as a force operating in both social life and nature, helping to give rise to dialectical materialism as a distinct brand of Marxism, and portraying Marxism in terms of a specific set of historical laws. Engels also extended materialist analysis to the family, arguing that monogamous marriage involves the subjection of women by men and has its origins in the institution of private property. Engels’ major works include Anti-Du¨hring (1877–8), The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884) and Dialectics of Nature (1925). Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870–1924) A Russian revolutionary and leader of the Soviet Union, 1917–24, Lenin was the most influential Marxist theorist of the twentieth century. He was primarily concerned with the issues of organisation and revolution, emphasising the central importance of a tightly- organised ‘vanguard’ party to lead and guide the proletarian class. Lenin analysed colonialism as an economic phenomenon and highlighted the 84 Political Theory possibility of turning world war into class war. He was also firmly committed to the ‘insurrectionary road’ to socialism and rejected electoral democracy as ‘parliamentary cretinism’. Lenin’s best known works include What Is to Be Done? (1902), Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) and The State and Revolution (1917). Leon Trotsky (1879–1940) A Russian revolutionary and political thinker, Trotsky was an early critic of Lenin’s theory of the party, but joined the Bolsheviks in 1917. His theoretical contribution to Marxism centres on the theory of permanent revolution, which suggested that socialism could be established in Russia without the need for the bourgeois stage of development. Trotskyism is usually associated with an unwavering commitment to internationalism and with a denunciation of Stalinism that portrays it as a form of bureaucratic degeneration. Trotsky’s major writings include Results and Prospects (1906), History of the Russian Revolution (1931) and The Revolution Betrayed (1936). Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) An Italian Marxist and social theorist, Gramsci tried to redress the emphasis within orthodox Marxism upon economic and material factors. He rejected any form of ‘scientific’ determinism by stressing, through the theory of hegemony (the dominance of bourgeois ideas and beliefs), the importance of the political and intellectual struggle. Gramsci highlighted the degree to which ideology is embedded at every level in society and called for the establishment of a rival ‘proletarian hegemony’, based upon socialist principles, values and theories. Gramsci’s major work is Prison Notebooks ([1929–35] 1971). Mao Zedong (1893–1976) A Chinese Marxist theorist and leader of the People’s Republic of China, 1949–76, Mao adapted Marxism–Leninism to the needs of an overwhelmingly agricultural and still traditional society. His ideological legacy is often associated with the Cultural Revolution, 1966–70, a radical egalitarian movement that denounced elitism and ‘capitalist roaders’. Maoism emphasizes the importance of politics in the form of the radical zeal of the masses, acknowledges the necessity of opposition and conflict, and stresses community rather than hierarchic state organization. Mao’s main works include On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship (1949), On the Ten Major Relationships (1956) and On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among People (1957). Further reading Avineri, S. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press, 1968. Kolakowski, L. Main Currents of Marxism, 3 vols. Oxford University Press, 1978. McLellan, D. Marxism After Marx. London: Macmillan, 1980. state as a concentrated form of oppression: it reflects nothing more than the desire of those in power, often loosely referred to as a ‘ruling class’, to subordinate others for their own benefit. In the words of the nineteenth- century Russian anarchist, Michael Bakunin (1814–76), the state is ‘the most flagrant, the most cynical and the most complete negation of humanity’. Even modern anarcho-capitalists such as Murray Rothbard simply dismiss the state as a ‘criminal band’ or ‘protection racket’, which has no legitimate claim to exercise authority over the individual. Modern anarchists, however, are less willing than the classic anarchist thinkers to denounce the state as nothing more than an instrument of organised violence. In The Ecology of Freedom (1982), for instance, Murray Book- chin (see p. 197) described the state as ‘an instilled mentality for ordering reality’, emphasising that in addition to its bureaucratic and coercive institutions the state is also a state of mind. Role of the state With the exception of anarchists, all political thinkers have regarded the state as, in some sense, a worthwhile or necessary association. Even revolutionary socialists have accepted the need for a proletarian state to preside over the transition from capitalism to communism, in the form of the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’. Thinkers have, however, profoundly disagreed about the exact role that the state should play in society. This has often been portrayed as the balance between the state and civil society. The state, as explained earlier, necessarily reflects sovereign, compulsory and coercive authority. Civil society, on the other hand, embraces those areas of life in which individuals are free to exercise choice and make their own decisions; in other words, it is a realm of voluntary and autonomous associations. At one extreme in this debate, classical liberals have argued that individuals should enjoy the widest possible liberty and have therefore insisted that the state be confined to a minimal role. This minimal role is simply to provide a framework of peace and social order within which private citizens can conduct their lives as they think best. The state therefore acts, as Locke put it, as a nightwatchman, whose services are only called upon when orderly existence is threatened. This nevertheless leaves the state with three important functions. The central function of the ‘minimal’ or ‘nightwatchman’ state is the maintenance of domestic order, in effect, protecting individual citizens from one another. All states thus possess some kind of machinery for upholding law and order. Secondly, it is necessary to ensure that the voluntary agreements or contracts which private individuals enter into are respected, which requires that they can be Politics, Government and the State 85 enforced through a court system. Third, there is the need to provide protection against the possibility of external attack, necessitating some form of armed service. Such minimal states, with institutional apparatus restricted to little more than a police force, court system and army, commonly existed in the nineteenth century, but became increasingly rare in the twentieth century. However, since the 1980s, particularly in association with the pressures generated by globalization, there has been a worldwide tendency to minimize or ‘roll back’ state power. The minimal state is the ideal of the liberal New Right, which argues that economic and social matters should be left entirely in the hands of individuals or private businesses. In their view, an economy free from state interference will be competitive, efficient and productive; and individuals freed from the dead hand of government will be able to rise and fall according to their talents and willingness to work. For much of the twentieth century, however, there was a general tendency for the state’s role progressively to expand. This had occurred in response to electoral pressures for economic and social security, supported by a broad ideological coalition including social democrats, modern liberals and paternalistic conservatives. The principal field of government activism had been the provision of welfare designed to reduce poverty and social inequality. The form which social welfare has taken has, however, varied considerably. In some cases, the social security system operates as little more than a ‘safety net’ intended to alleviate the worst incidents of hardship. In the USA, Australia and, increasingly, the UK, welfare provision usually emphasizes self-reliance, and targets benefits on those in demonstrable need. On the other hand, developed welfare states have been established and persist in many Western European countries. These attempt to bring about a wholesale redistribution of wealth through a comprehensive system of public services and state benefits, financed though progressive taxation. The concept of welfare and controversies about it are examined in greater depth in Chapter 10. The second major form state intervention has taken is economic management. As industrialized economies develop they require some kind of management by a central authority. In most Western societies this has led to the emergence of ‘managed capitalism’. From the viewpoint of the New Right, however, government’s economic responsibilities should be restricted to creating conditions within which market forces can most effectively operate. In practice, this means that the state should only promote competition and ensure stable prices by regulating the supply of money. Others, however, have accepted the need for more far-reaching economic management. Keynesian economic policies have, for instance, been endorsed by social democrats and modern liberals in the hope that they will reduce unemployment and promote growth. Under their 86 Political Theory influence, public expenditure grew and the state became the most influential of economic actors. Nationalization, widely adopted in the early post-1945 period, led to the development of so-called ‘mixed economies’, allowing the state to control certain industries directly and to have an indirect influence over the entire economy. Although there is now a widespread recognition of the need for a balance between the state and the market in economic life, party politics in much of the industria- lized West boils down to a debate about where that balance should be struck. Ideological battles often focus upon precisely how far the state should intervene in economic and social life as opposed to leaving matters to the impersonal pressures of the market. These issues are discussed more fully in Chapter 11. A more extensive form of state intervention, however, developed in orthodox communist countries such as the Soviet Union. These sought to abolish private enterprise altogether and set up centrally planned econo- mies, administered by a network of economic ministries and planning committees. The economy was thus transferred entirely from civil society to the state, creating collectivized states. The justification for collectivizing economic life lies in the Marxist belief that capitalism is a system of class exploitation, suggesting that central planning is both morally superior and economically more efficient. The experience of communist regimes in the second half of the twentieth century, however, suggests that state collecti- vization struggled to produce the levels of economic growth and general prosperity that were achieved in Western capitalist countries. Without doubt, the failure of central planning contributed to the collapse of orthodox communism in the Eastern European revolutions of 1989–91. The most extreme form of state control is found in totalitarian states. The essence of totalitarianism is the construction of an all-embracing state, whose influence penetrates every aspect of human existence, the economy, education, culture, religion, family life and so forth. Totalitarian states are characterised by a pervasive system of ideological manipulation and a comprehensive process of surveillance and terroristic policing. Clearly, all the mechanisms through which opposition can be expressed – competitive elections, political parties, pressure groups and free media – have to be weakened or removed. The best examples of such regimes were Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union under Stalin. In effect, totalitarianism amounts to the outright abolition of civil society, the abolition of ‘the private’, a goal which only fascists, who wish to dissolve individual identity within the social whole, are prepared openly to endorse. In one sense, totalitarianism sets out to politicize every aspect of human existence: it seeks to establish comprehensive state control. However, in another sense, it can be regarded as the death of politics, in that its goal is a monolithic society in which individuality, diversity and conflict are abolished. Politics, Government and the State 87 Summary 1 Politics involves diversity, conflict and attempts to resolve conflict. While some have seen politics as narrowly related to the affairs of government or to a public sphere of life, others believe that it reflects the distribution of power or resources and so can be found in every social institution. 2 Government refers to ordered rule, a characteristic of all organised societies. First world liberal-democratic forms of government can be distinguished from state socialist second world and various forms of third world govern- ment, though such distinctions have been blurred by developments such as the fall of communism. 3 The state is a sovereign political association operating in a defined territorial area. In the view of pluralists, the liberal democratic state acts impartially and responds to popular pressures. However, others suggest that the state is characterised by biases which either systematically favour the bureau- cracy or state elite or benefit major economic interests. 4 The role of the state is perhaps the dominant theme of party political dis- agreement, reflecting different views about the proper relationship between the state and the individual.While some wish to roll back the state and leave matters in the hands of individuals and the market, others want to roll it forward in the cause of social justice and widespread prosperity. Further reading Bauman, Z. In Search of Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999. Crick, B. In Defence of Politics. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2000. Dunleavy, P. and O’Leary, B. Theories of the State: The Politics of Liberal Democracy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1987. Easton, D. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. 2nd edn. University of Chicago Press, 1979. Elsted, J. and Slagstad, R. (eds) Constitutionalism and Democracy. Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hague, R. and Harrop, M. Comparative Government and Politics: an Introduc- tion, 6th edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Held, D. Political Theory and the Modern State. Oxford: Polity, 1990. Leftwich, A. (ed.) What is Politics? The Activity and its Study. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984. McLennon, G., Held, D. and Hall, S. (eds) The Idea of the Modern State. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1984. Rosenau, J. and Czenpiel, E.-O. (eds) Governance with Government: Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge University Press, 1992. van Creveld, M. The Rise and Decline of the State. Cambridge University Press, 1999. 88 Political Theory Chapter 4 Sovereignty, the Nation and Supranationalism Introduction Sovereignty The nation Supranationalism Summary Further reading Introduction In virtually all communities political rule is exercised through the institutions of government or the state. However, it is less clear what the proper or appropriate unit of political rule might be. In other words, over what population group and within what territorial boundaries should state power operate? For the last two hundred years the dominant answer to that question has been ‘the nation’. It has almost been taken for granted that the nation is the only legitimate political community, and therefore that the nation-state is the highest form of political organization. Indeed, national sovereignty is usually understood to be the cor- nerstone of international law, giving each nation the right of self-defence and to determine its own destiny. Nevertheless, the post-1945 period has been charac- terized by a marked trend towards globalization, reflected in the growth of eco- nomic independence as national economies have been incorporated into a global one, and in the emergence of supranational bodies such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organization and the European Union. While some have applauded this development, arguing that international federations and even world government now constitute the only viable units of political rule, others have protested vehemently about the loss of national independence and self-determination. This debate has usually focused upon the question of sovereignty and, in particular, the merits or otherwise of national sovereignty. Is the exercise of sovereign power essential for the existence of a stable political community, and where should that sovereignty be located? More- over, considerable controversy surrounds the idea of the nation: what factors define a nation, and what makes the nation a viable, perhaps the only viable, unit of political rule? Finally, in an increasingly global society, forms of internationalism and supranationalism have proliferated. What forms has supranational govern- ment taken, and do supranational bodies have the potential eventually to replace the nation-state? 89 Sovereignty The concept of sovereignty was born in the seventeenth century, as a result of the emergence in Europe of the modern state. In the medieval period, princes, kings and emperors had acknowledged a higher authority than themselves in the form of God – the ‘King of Kings’ – and the Papacy. Moreover, authority was divided, in particular between spiritual and temporal sources of authority. However, as feudalism faded in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the authority of transnational institutions, such as the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire, was replaced by that of centralizing monarchies. In England this was achieved under the Tudor dynasty, in France under the Bourbons, in Spain under the Habsburgs and so on. For the first time, secular rulers were able to claim to exercise supreme power, and this they did in a new language of sovereignty. Sovereignty means absolute and unlimited power. However, this apparently simple principle conceals a wealth of confusion, misunder- standing and disagreement. In the first place, it is unclear what this absolute power consists of. Sovereignty can either refer to supreme legal authority or to unchallengeable political power. This controversy relates to the distinction between two kinds of sovereignty, termed by the nineteenth-century constitutional theorist A.V. Dicey ([1885] 1939) ‘legal sovereignty’ and ‘political sovereignty’. The concept of sovereignty has also been used in two contrasting ways. In the form of internal sovereignty it refers to the distribution of power within the state, and leads to questions about the need for supreme power and its location within the political system. In the form of external sovereignty it is related to the state’s role within the international order and to whether or not it is able to operate as an independent and autonomous actor. Legal and political sovereignty The distinction between legal sovereignty and political sovereignty is often traced back to a difference of emphasis found in the writings of the classical exponents of the principle, Jean Bodin (see p. 165) and Thomas Hobbes (see p. 123). In The Six Books of the Commonweal ([1576] 1962), Bodin argued for a sovereign who made laws but was not himself bound by those laws. Law, according to this view, amounted to little more than the command of the sovereign, and subjects were required simply to obey. Bodin did not, however, advocate or justify despotic rule, but claimed, rather, that the sovereign monarch was constrained by the existence of a higher law, in the form of the will of God or natural law. The sovereignty of temporal rulers was therefore underpinned by divine authority. Hobbes, on the other hand, described sovereignty in terms of power rather than 90 Political Theory authority. He built upon a tradition dating back to Augustine which explained the need for a sovereign in terms of the moral evil that resides within humankind. In Leviathan ([1651] 1968), Hobbes defined sovereignty as a monopoly of coercive power and advocated that it be vested in the hands of a single ruler. Although Hobbes’s preferred form of government was a monarchy, he was prepared to accept that, so long as it was unchallengeable, the sovereign could be an oligarchic group or even democratic assembly. This distinction therefore reflects the one between authority and power. Legal sovereignty is based upon the belief that ultimate and final authority resides in the laws of the state. This is de jure sovereignty, supreme power defined in terms of legal authority. In other words, it is based upon the right to require somebody to comply, as defined by law. By contrast, political sovereignty is not in any way based upon a claim to legal authority but is concerned simply about the actual distribution of power, that is, de facto sovereignty. Political sovereignty therefore refers to the existence of a supreme political power, possessed of the ability to command obedience because it monopolizes coercive force. However, although these two concepts can be distinguished analytically, they are Sovereignty, the Nation and Supranationalism 91 St Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Theologian and political philosopher. Born in North Africa, Augustine moved to Rome where he became professor of rhetoric. He converted to Christianity in 386 and returned to North Africa as the Bishop of Hippo. He wrote against the backdrop of the sacking of Rome by the Goths in 410. Augustine’s defence of Christianity drew upon neo-Platonic philosophy, Christian doctrine and biblical history. His major work, City of God (413–25), considers the relationship between church and state and examines the characteristics of two symbolic cities, the earthly city and the heavenly city, Jerusalem and Babylon. The heavenly city is based upon spiritual grace and a love of God, and binds both rulers and subjects to the ‘common good’; its members will be saved and will go to Heaven hereafter. By contrast, the earthly city is shaped by a love of self and is characterized by absolute power or sovereignty; its members are reprobates and will suffer eternal damnation. Augustine believed that fallen humanity is tainted by original sin and that without sin there would be no need for government. Government can curb sinful conduct by the threat or use of punishment, but it cannot cure original sin. Although Augustine insisted that the church should obey the laws of the state, his emphasis upon the moral superiority of Christian principles over political society, and his belief that the church should imbue society with these principles, has been interpreted as a justification for theocracy. closely related in practice. There are reasons to believe that on their own neither constitutes a viable form of sovereignty. In a sense, sovereignty always involves a claim to exercise legal authority, a claim to exercise power by right and not merely by virtue of force. All substantial claims to sovereignty therefore have a crucial legal dimension. The sovereignty of modern states, for example, is reflected in the supremacy of law: families, clubs, trade unions, businesses and so on, can establish rules which command authority, but only within limits defined by law. Nevertheless, law on its own does not secure compliance. No society has yet been constructed in which law is universally obeyed and crime entirely unheard of. This is evident in the simple fact that systems of law are everywhere backed up by a machinery of punishment, involving the police, courts and prison system. Legal authority, in other words, is underpinned by the exercise of power. Lacking the ability to enforce a command, a claim to legal sovereignty will carry only moral weight, as, for example, the peoples of the Baltic States – Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania – recognized between their invasion by the Soviet Union in 1940 and their eventual achievement of independence in 1991. A very similar lesson applies to the political conception of sovereignty. Although all states seek a monopoly of coercive power and prevent, or at least limit, their citizens’ access to it, very few rule through the use of force alone. Constitutional and democratic government has, in part, come into existence in an attempt to persuade citizens that the state has the right to rule, to exercise authority and not merely power. Perhaps the most obvious exceptions to this have been brutally repressive states, such as those in Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia or Pol Pot’s Cambodia, which came close to establishing an exclusively political form of sovereignty because they ruled largely through their ability to repress, manipulate and coerce. However, even in these cases it is doubtful that such states were ever sovereign in the sense of being supreme and unchallengeable; none of them, for instance, was enduringly successful, and their very use of open terror bears witness to the survival of opposition and resistance. Moreover, in building up vast ideological apparatuses, totalitarian leaders such as Hitler, Stalin and Pol Pot clearly recognized the need to give their regimes at least the mantle of legal authority. Internal sovereignty Internal sovereignty refers to the internal affairs of the state and the location of supreme power within it. An internal sovereign is therefore a political body that possesses ultimate, final and independent authority; one whose decisions are binding upon all citizens, groups and institutions in society. Much of political theory has been an attempt to decide precisely 92 Political Theory where such sovereignty should be located. Early thinkers, as already noted, were inclined to the belief that sovereignty should be vested in the hands of a single person, a monarch. Absolute monarchs described themselves as ‘sovereigns’, and could declare, as did Louis XIV of France in the seventeenth century, that they were the state. The overriding merit of vesting sovereignty in a single individual was that sovereignty would then be indivisible; it would be expressed in a single voice that could claim final authority. The most radical departure from this absolutist notion of sovereignty came in the eighteenth century with Jean-Jacques Rousseau (see p. 242). Rousseau rejected monarchical rule in favour of the notion of popular sovereignty, the belief that ultimate authority is vested in the people themselves, expressed in the idea of the ‘general will’. The doctrine of popular sovereignty has often been seen as the basis of modern democratic theory. However, sovereignty has also been located in legislative bodies. For example, the British legal philosopher John Austin (1790–1859) argued that sovereignty in the UK was vested neither in the Crown nor in the people but in the ‘Monarch in Parliament’. This was the origin of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, usually seen as the fundamental principle of the British constitution. What all such thinkers, however, had in common is that they believed that sovereignty could be, and should be, located in a determinant body. They believed that political rule requires the existence of an ultimate authority, and only disagreed about who or what this ultimate authority should be. This has come to be known as the ‘traditional’ doctrine of sovereignty. In an age of pluralistic and democratic government, however, the traditional doctrine has come in for growing criticism. Its opponents argue either that it is intrinsically linked to its absolutist past and so is frankly undesirable, or that it is no longer applicable to modern systems of government which operate according to a network of checks and balances. It has been suggested, for instance, that liberal-democratic principles are the very antithesis of sovereignty in that they argue for a distribution of power amongst a number of institutions, none of which can meaningfully claim to be sovereign. This applies even in the case of popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau never wavered from the belief that sovereignty resides with the people, he acknowledged that the ‘general will’ was an indivisible whole which could only be articulated by a single individual, who he called ‘the legislator’. This has encouraged commentators such as J. L. Talmon (1952) to suggest that Rousseau is the principal intellectual forebear of twentieth-century totalitarianism. Similar claims have been made regard- ing the UK principle of parliamentary sovereignty. Governments that achieve majority control of the House of Commons gain access to unlimited constitutional authority, creating what has been called an ‘elective dictatorship’ or ‘modern autocracy’. Sovereignty, the Nation and Supranationalism 93 The task of locating an internal sovereign in modern government is Download 1.87 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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