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doi: 10.1002/ente.202000028.
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A high-efficiency, portable, solar-powered cooling system
based on a foldable-flower mechanism and wireless power
transfer technology for vehicle cabins
Tingsheng Zhang, Yan Feng, Xiaoping Wu, Yajia Pan, Zutao Zhang*, Yanping Yuan
School of Mechanical Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, P. R. China
*E-mail: [e-mail]

Keywords: Vehicle cabin cooling system; Solar foldable flower; Portable mechanism; Wireless power

transfer; Photovoltaic

Abstract

In summer, the high temperature inside vehicles is a problem, because cooling a vehicle parked under
the scorching sun is both time and energy consuming. This paper proposes a portable solar-powered
cooling system (SPCS) based on a foldable-flower mechanism and wireless power transfer (WPT)
technology. The proposed system consists of three main parts: a solar foldable-flower module (SFFM),
an energy transfer module, and a temperature control module. The solar foldable-flower module is a
novel foldable mechanism that achieves high space utilization through a rotating process and a folding
process, like a flower opening its petals. The solar foldable-flower module, equipped with photovoltaic
(PV) cells, collects solar energy and converts it into electricity. The energy transfer module stores
electricity from the solar foldable-flower module in a supercapacitor via a WPT unit. The temperature
control module achieves automatic temperature regulation using a cooling device. Experimental results
show that output power can reach up to 7.571 W with a load resistor of 5 Ω, while the efficiency of the
WPT can reach up to 73.6% with a load resistor of 15 Ω. Moreover, thermal simulation results illustrate
that the proposed system can achieve an average temperature reduction of 27.45 ℃, making it feasible
and effective to cool a hot vehicle cabin.


1. Introduction

With the continuous consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas, the energy crisis

has become increasingly serious in the 21st century. The development of renewable energy is growing
increasingly topical in current research.[1] Renewable energy research involves various fields[2], such as
wind energy[3,4], tidal energy, nuclear energy, mechanical energy[5-7], acoustic energy[8], and solar
energy[9,10]. Among the renewable energy types mentioned above, solar energy is particularly topical.[11]
Most of the energy required by humans originates from the sun.[12] The atmosphere of the earth only
receives about one 2,200 millionth of the sun’s total radiant energy. Solar energy is, in a sense, an
infinite source.[13] Particularly, in the 21st century, fossil energy is increasingly being depleted, and the
full development and application of solar energy have the dual significance of sustainable development
and environmental protection[14]. As a renewable and clean energy source, solar energy is used as the
power supply for many studies on air-conditioning systems, and can be classified into two categories,
based on their working principles and applications: photovoltaic systems and photothermal systems.[15]
With the continuous development of the photovoltaic industry and technology, photovoltaic air-
conditioning technology has been gradually improved. Xu et al.[16] presented a solar photovoltaic-based
static ice refrigeration air-conditioning system, and investigated its energy transmission and conversion
characteristics. They also proposed an ice storage air-conditioning system powered by a distributed
photovoltaic system, which shows a prospect of broad application in the tropical region without energy
supply from power grids.[17] Eicker et al.[18] concluded that both photovoltaic and photothermal cooling
systems can reduce power consumption by 21-70%, by analyzing solar cooling systems for office
buildings in different climates. Regarding adsorption and absorption cooling technologies powered by
photovoltaic and photothermal collectors, Buonomano et al.[19] designed a dynamic simulation model
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with MatLab programming, simulating a solar polygeneration system that simultaneously produces
space heating and cooling, as well as electricity. Zheng et al.20] compared the different characteristics of
phase change material and microencapsulated phase change material in a solar-powered cooling cycle
system. According to the experimental results, microencapsulated phase change material, as a cooling
medium, has obvious advantages in cooling cycles driven by solar energy. Huang et al.[21] designed an
air-conditioning system, using an inverter, directly powered by an independent solar PV system. By
testing six solar air conditioners, it was concluded that solar PV modules must be at least three times
the load power in order to achieve low power loss risk in air-conditioning systems. Liu et al.[22]
presented a quasi-grid-connected PV DC air-conditioning system. Compared with conventional air
conditioners, their designed system can save at least 67% and 77% of grid power, respectively, during
the day and night in summer. In terms of comprehensive energy efficiency ratio, solar air conditioners
have a ratio 4.6 times higher than that of conventional air conditioners.
Some researchers have studied solar PV air-conditioning systems for vehicles. Pang et al.[23]
proposed an air-conditioning system powered by PV panels for vehicle cabins. The research indicated
that the minimum cooling capacity can reach 1500 W, which can reduce the cabin temperature to
25 °C—similar to a traditional automobile air conditioner. Pan et al.[24] designed a portable solar PV
cooling system for vehicles, which for the first time applied wireless power transfer to the cooling
system.
The second category to power air-conditioning systems is photothermal conversion, which is also the
direction that many scholars are studying.[25] Reda et al.[26] proposed a method to select the best
parameters for small scale solar-assisted silica-water adsorption cooling systems in arid regions. Solar
collectors have an optimum absorption radiation angle of 5°. To solve the problem of cooling domestic
water in many dry areas during the summer, Tijani et al.[27] designed a solar multi-stage thermoelectric
cooling system. Allouche et al.[28] used TRNSYS to evaluate the performance of a solar driven injector
cooling system. A parametric investigation was conducted in a 140-m2 room in Tunisia and some
conclusions were drawn. Small thermal storage tanks were recommended, and solar collectors should
be based on further research to find the appropriate parameters for solar cooling applications. Using
phase change material for latent heat storage in the ejector solar cooling system is also a highly
recommended method. Tashtoush et al.[29] designed solar collector subsystem components and used
TRNSYS-EES software to achieve performance evaluation of a solar injector cooling system using
R134a as a refrigerant, and to perform dynamic hourly simulation of the mixing components of a 7 kW
solar ejector cooling system under constant pressure. Bellos and Tzivanidis[30] presented a jet
absorption chiller system with a solar parabolic trough collector. Compared with traditional absorption
systems, the ejector-absorption system has better performance from numerous aspects. Wang et al.[31]
designed, optimized, and analyzed a combined heating, cooling, and electricity system integrated with a
photovoltaic and photothermal collector for thermodynamic performance. The experiment results
demonstrated that photothermal collectors have better integration performance.
Solar photothermal air-conditioning systems for vehicles have also been studied by some
researchers. Mei et al.[32] studied a solar-assisted thermoelectric cooling technique in a car air
conditioner, and built a mathematical model to analyze the power consumption and performance of
thermoelectric materials. Wu et al.[33] developed a novel solar absorption cooling system for office
buildings to reduce cooling costs. The unit cost of cooling of the optimized system is $0.24 per kWh of
cooling effect, by collecting solar energy on the façade of the building. Qi et al.[34] presented a novel
solar cooling system for vehicles based on phase change materials. This system achieves vehicle
cooling via heat exchange between the cabin ambient air and the phase change materials.
Despite the success of many solar air conditioners, the portability and method of power transfer
remain challenging problems in the application of solar air conditioners to vehicles. This paper proposes
a new portable solar-powered cooling system, with a supercapacitor which is used to store power[35], for
vehicles. Recently, increasing numbers of scholars have focused on research on WPT technology, such
as wireless powered communication[36], charging electric vehicles[37] and electronic skin[38]. The
proposed system uses WPT technology to avoid modification of the vehicle and to facilitate carrying
and installing.
The remaining content of the article is as follows. Section 2 introduces the design of the solar-power
cooling system proposed in this paper, including a solar foldable-flower module, an energy transfer
module, a temperature control unit, and a cooling system. The system is modeled and analyzed in
Section 3. Section 4 describes the experimental details and results of both the experiments and
simulation. Section 5 discusses the results of the study. Finally, conclusions of this paper are given in
Section 6.

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2. System design
Figure 1. Flowchart of the proposed solar-power cooling system. (a) Structure and working principle of the
solar foldable-flower module. (b) Energy transfer module of the solar-power cooling system. (c) Temperature
control module. (d) Workflow of the solar-power cooling system.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the solar-power cooling system. (a) Lateral view of the solar-power cooling

system. (b) Top view of the solar-power cooling system.
The proposed solar-power cooling system for vehicles was designed as shown in Figure 1, and
comprises a solar foldable-flower module, an energy transfer module, and a temperature control
module. First, when the car is parked under the scorching sun, the solar foldable-flower module is
placed on the roof of the vehicle. The solar foldable-flower module installed with PV cells uses a
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foldable mechanism structure to improve portability. In other words, when the solar foldable-flower
module is about to work, the folding mechanism is deployed to obtain a larger illumination area; when
the solar foldable-flower module is not working, the mechanism is folded and placed in the vehicle cabin
to improve space utilization, so as to not affect driving. The second part is the energy transfer module.
During the process of energy transfer, PV cells convert solar energy into electricity, which is stored in
the supercapacitor via the WPT unit. The last part is the temperature control module. The temperature
sensor measures the real-time cabin temperature. When the measured temperature reaches the preset
temperature, the single chip microcomputer controls the stepper motor to unfold the solar foldable-
flower module. The cooling system is then started to maintain a suitable temperature inside the vehicle.
Before driving, the solar foldable-flower module must be folded and placed in the car. Figure 2
illustrates the schematic diagram of the solar-power cooling system.

2.1. Solar foldable-flower module

Figure 3. Structural design of the solar foldable-flower module. (a) Unfolded view of the solar foldable-flower

module. (b) Symmetric folding process of the solar foldable-flower module. (c) Rotating folding process of the
solar foldable-flower module. (d) Folded view of the solar foldable-flower module. (e) Overall view of the
folded solar foldable-flower module installed on vehicle.
The structural design of the solar collector proposed in this paper originates from a flower opening its
petals, as shown in Figure 3. The device mainly comprises: six petals, bevel gear sets, hinges, stepper
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motors, base frames, wire, and fixed pulleys. Each petal comprises sector plates with a diameter of 300
mm and a central angle of 60°, equipped with PV cells. Every three petals are assembled with hinge
connections as a solar collector unit. Each unit uses custom hinges to put the axes of the hinge in the
same plane. As shown in Figure 3(e), each solar collector unit uses a bevel gear set, and one large
bevel gear drives two small bevel gears simultaneously to drive the petals to rotate and fold. Thus, the
device uses a stepper motor to drive a large bevel gear and in turn drive two small bevel gears, which
are fixed to the axes of the hinges, to achieve rotation and folding of the petals. In Figure 3(b), (d), and
(e) each solar collection unit is symmetrically folded by wire, a fixed pulley, and a stepper motor.
Therefore, positive and negative movement of the stepper motor can achieve the unfolding and folding
of the solar foldable-flower module. The overall size of the folded device is 200 350 450 mm in
Figure 3(d). The weight of the solar foldable-flower module is about 4.5 kg. Figure 4 shows the
installation view of the solar foldable-flower module when the car is parked under the sun. Figure 4(c)-(f)
shows the four states of the solar foldable-flower module during the aforementioned folding or unfolding
process. First, the solar foldable flower is taken from the car cabin and placed on the roof of the car, as in
Figure 4(a)-(c). Two stepper motors drive the wire, causing the two solar collector units to rotate 30° to the
outside, as in Figure 4(d). The other two stepper motors drive the two bevel gear sets, causing each solar
collector unit to rotate and unfold, as in Figure 4(e). The first two stepper motors continue to work, making
the two solar collectors continue to rotate 60° to the outside. Finally, the unfolding of the solar foldable-flower
module is complete, as in Figure 4(f).

Figure 4. Installation view of the solar foldable-flower module. (a) The solar foldable-flower module is placed

on the roof from inside vehicle. (b) The solar foldable-flower module is installed on vehicle. (c) The folded
solar foldable-flower module on vehicle. (d) Symmetric folding process of the solar foldable-flower module on
vehicle. (e) Rotating folding process of the solar foldable-flower module on vehicle. (f) The unfolded solar
foldable-flower module on vehicle.

2.2. Energy transfer module

Figure 5 describes the energy transfer process of the solar-power cooling system. Solar PV panels
serve to convert solar energy into electricity. It is innovative that the solar-power cooling system delivers
electricity through WPT technology, which has the advantages of (1) satisfactory energy transfer
efficiency and (2) not requiring modification of the car. The DC/DC converter adjusts a suitable output
voltage. Specifically, its input voltage is from 8 V to 22 V and output voltage is 5 V. The controller
controls the charging and discharging of the supercapacitor. Finally, the temperature control module
consumes the transmitted energy to maintain the temperature at a suitable level.
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Figure 5. Energy transfer process.

Figure 6. Field installation of the proposed prototype. (a)Prototype installation of the unfolded solar foldable-

flower module on vehicle. (b) Cooling system inside the vehicle. (d) Prototype installation of the folded solar
foldable-flower module on vehicle.
Figure 6 (a) and (b) demonstrate the field installation of the proposed prototype, including a solar
foldable-flower module, a WPT unit, a cooling device, and a supercapacitor, while Figure 6(c) is the
outer appearance of a vehicle equipped with the proposed system. PV cells—converting solar energy
into the required electrical energy—are installed on the solar foldable-flower module. Each petal
consists of three polycrystalline silicon PV cells S₁, S₂, and S₃, with sizes of 53 30 mm, 68 37 mm,
and 110 80 mm, respectively. The generated electricity is supplied with a voltage of 5 V, and currents
of 30 mA, 60 mA, and 200 mA, respectively. As shown in Figure 7, all solar PV cells are connected in
series and in parallel to provide electricity totaling 20 V and 21 W. To avoid modification of the vehicle
body, and to reduce the layout of the wire, WPT technology is used to deliver electricity from the roof of
the vehicle to the temperature control module. The input voltage and input current of the WPT are 20 V
and 1.05 A respectively, while the output voltage and output current are 12 V and 1 A respectively. The
inner and outer diameters of the induction coil are 21 mm and 43 mm, respectively. The efficiency of the
WPT unit through magnetic coupling resonance is about 50–75%, and the maximum transmission
distance is 20 mm. The voltage and capacity of the supercapacitor are 16 V and 20 F respectively,
which is produced by Taiwan CDA.
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Figure 7. Series and parallel connection of PV cells.

2.3. Temperature control module

When a car is parked under the blazing sun, the solar foldable-flower module is set on the vehicle and
starts working. In detail, the petals are unfolded, after which the collected solar energy is converted into
electricity. The electricity is stored in the supercapacitor via WPT technology. The temperature control
module detects and adjusts the cabin temperature in real time. Specifically, when a car is exposed to
sunlight for a long time, the temperature inside the vehicle cabin gradually rises. Once the temperature
sensor detects that the temperature exceeds 30°C (the preset value), the vehicle cooling device is
activated. During this process, the supercapacitor supplies power to the car's cooling device until the
cabin temperature drops to the preset value.
Additionally, the entire system described above can be controlled via Bluetooth. When the user needs
to drive his or her car, the above system can be remotely controlled using a mobile phone to adjust the
temperature to a comfortable level before entering the car. The cooling system proposed in this paper,
which is a small fan rated at 5 V and 500mA, is shown in Figure 8(a). Figure 8(b) demonstrates the
cooling process.

Figure 8. View of the cooling system. (a) Cooling device inside vehicle. (b) Cooling process inside vehicle.

3. Modeling and analysis

3.1. Solar foldable flower

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Figure 9. Analysis of a solar collector unit. (a) Lateral view of the unfolded solar collector unit sketch. (b)

Lateral view of the folded solar collector unit sketch. (c) Meshing lateral view of the bevel gear set. (d)
Meshing axonometric view of the bevel gear set.
Figure 9 illustrates the work principle of a solar collector unit. Figure 9 (a) and Figure 9 (b) show a
schematic view of an unfolded and folded solar collector unit, respectively. As shown in Figure 9 (c), the
indexing circle diameter (R_d) of the large bevel gear is 78mm, while the indexing circle (r_d) of the small
one is 26 mm. In Figure 9 (d), v_R is the rotation speed of the large bevel gear that is equal to that of the
stepper motor, while v_r is that of the small bevel gear rotation—that is, the rotation speed of the petal.
The gear ratio (i) between them can be expressed as
 _
_
_
(1)



Figure 10. Analysis of the symmetrical folding mechanism. (a) Lateral view sketch of the unfolded
symmetrical mechanism. (b) Lateral view sketch of the folded symmetrical mechanism.
Figure 10 (a) and (b) respectively show the unfolded state and the folded state of the symmetrical
folding mechanism, where a, b, c, and l are distances among different connection points; ω₁ is the
revolving speed of stepper motor; d is the diameter of the reel; L is the distance between the fixed
pulley and the connection point on the solar collector unit; and v is the speed of the wire. The
relationships between them are:
_

(2)
^^
(3)
^^^
(4)

α can be obtained by the Cosine Theorem:

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^
 
(5)
Taking the derivative of α, ω₂ indicates the revolving velocity of the solar collector unit.
_

(6)
Figure 11 states the trends of L and ω₂ over time, where L changes linearly and ω₂ gradually
decreases until it is stabilized. The symmetrical folding process takes approximately 4 seconds.

Figure 11. Simulation of the symmetrical folding mechanism.

3.2. Solar radiation

3.2.1 Geographical parameters

To calculate the amount of solar radiation somewhere on the surface of the Earth, the first step is to
determine basic geographic parameters, including the declination, solar altitude angle, solar azimuth
angle, and local solar time.
Declination (δ), ranging from -23.5 º to +23.5º, can be estimated by the Cooper formula:

 
(7)

where δ is the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the plane of the equator on the

th day of a year.
According to Duffie and Beckman[39], some parameters are estimated using the following formula:

^
(8)


(9)
 
 

(10)

(11)
where E is the time correction factor; T refers to the local solar time (h); ω represents the hour angle (°);
t is the local standard time (h) (which in this paper represents Beijing); L_st is the standard meridian for
the local time zone (which is 105° East in this paper); and L_loc is the longitude of the location (which
located in Chengdu (104.07 ° East)).
The solar altitude angle (α_s) and solar azimuth angle (γ_s) are given by:
_
(12)
_
_
(13)
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Citations (9)
References (58)
... When the cooling is not required, the stepper motors rotate in reverse to fully fold it, then stow it in the vehicle for the next use. In 2020, Zhang et al. [32] also designed a portable vehicle solar-powered cooling system based on a foldable-flower mechanism, as shown in Fig. 8. The designed mechanism folds better and is more portable than the mechanism proposed previously [31]. ...
... Portable system design is implemented by using folding mechanisms, including foldable PV supports and foldable PV self-powered applications. Linkage mechanism [31], screw slider mechanism [31e33], and gear set mechanism [32] are commonly used for foldable structure design. In addition to the folding effect, weight is a factor that cannot be ignored for portable PV system design. ...
... Additionally, PV power generation is also used in other transport-related applications. Portable self-powered solar cooling systems were developed to cool vehicle cabins [31,32]. PV-powered charging stations were presented to power electric vehicles [124,125]. ...
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October 2020 · Materials Today: Proceedings

• 
  Sangeetha Krishnamoorthi
  
• 
  L. Prabhu
  
• 
  Glen Kuriakose
  
• 
  [...]
  
• 
  J. Harikrishnan
  

This paper provides a way to control the temperature of interior compartment of an automobile which is kept stationary and facing the solar energy received from the sun. Phase change materials PCM were mainly used inside the cabin to remove heat and to provide an air cooling system. When the vehicle is at outdoors and kept under the sun these materials were used to take care that the cabin ... [Show full abstract]
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