Review of the historical facts
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Scientific analyses of mofphemic wordformation
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5th century AD 3Some tribes of the Germanic tribes (especially the Angles and Saxons) migrated across the sea to the British Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands from the occupiers, but despite this, they gradually lost most of their territory. They retreated north and southeast (where Scotland and Wales are now). Due to the numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors4 borrowed a few Celtic words ("bald", "down", "glen", "brad", "cradle"). Among the Celtic borrowings, the geographical names of places, rivers, mountains, etc. were especially numerous ... Germanic tribes occupied the country, but the names of many parts of its territory "sounded" in Celtic. With the exception of the names of the rivers "Avon", "Exe", "Esk", "Usk", "ux", derived from Celtic words meaning river and water ("river" and "water").
Funny, but even the name of the capital of England comes from the Celtic "Llyn + dun", where "Llyn" Celtic synonym for "river", and "dun" - "fortified hill", which collectively means "fortress on a hill above the river." Several Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon language through Celtic. Among them are such widely used words as "street" ("street" - lat. "Strata via") and "wall" ("wall" - lat. "Vallum"). Seventh century AD This century was significant in the Christianization of England. Latin was the official language of the Christian Church, and as a result, the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowing. These borrowings now came not from "colloquial" Latin, as was the case eight centuries earlier, but from "Christian". Also these new Latin borrowings had different, from earlier, meanings. They mainly referred to people, objects and ideas related to the church and religious rituals: for example, "priest" ("priest" - lat. "Presbyter"), "bishop" ("bishop" - lat. "Episcopus"), "monk" ("monk" - lat. "monachus"), "nun" ("nun" - lat. "nonna"), "candle" ("candle" - lat. "candela"). It goes without saying that educational terms are also of Latin origin, since the first schools in England were church schools where teaching was conducted in Latin, and the first teachers were priests and monks. So, actually, the very word "school" ("school") is Latin borrowing (Latin schola, has, in turn, Greek "roots"), and, accordingly, such words as "schoolboy" and " master "(" scholar "- lat." scholar (-is) "," magister "- lat." magister "). From the end of the eighth century to the middle of the eleventh, England was subjected to several Scandinavian invasions. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: "call (v.), Take (v.), Cast (v.), Die (v.), Law (n.), Husband (n.), Window (n.) , ill (adj.), loose, (adj.), low (adj.), weak (adj.) ". Some Scandinavian borrowings can easily be calculated from the two initial letters "sk-". For example, sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt. Under the influence of Scandinavian words with certain roots, some English words have changed their meanings. So for example, the old English word "bread" ("bread"), previously designated "piece" ("piece"), acquired this modern meaning by combining with the Scandinavian word "braud". The old English word "dream", which earlier meant joy ("joy"), absorbed the meaning of the Scandinavian "dramur". Year 1066. From the famous battle of Hastings (Hastings), when the British were defeated by the Normans, led by William the Conqueror, began the era of Norman conquest, full of events. Norman culture of the XI century certainly surpassed the Saxon. As a result, the English language is enriched with a large number of French words. But, despite the decline after the most powerful invasion of foreign elements, English was forced to maintain its internal structure and greatly enrich it with borrowings. England has become a bilingual country. French words from the Normandy dialect have penetrated into every aspect of social life. Below is a short list of examples of such borrowings. Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power. Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy. Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. Words from everyday life: table, plate, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc. Age of the Renaissance. In England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by important developments in science, art and culture, and also revived interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Therefore, starting from this time, many Latin and Greek borrowings appeared. Unlike early Latin borrowings (I century BC), the Renaissance brought less specific names. These were more abstract words (for example, major, minor, moderate, intelligent, permanent, elect, to create). These were scientific terms and terms related to art (for example, datum, status, the phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). Most of them were borrowed from Latin, which had previously come to Latin from Greek. The Renaissance epoch was a period of great cultural ties between large European states. Therefore, it was natural that the new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages. The most significant were French borrowing. This time they came from the Paris dialect of the French language and were called Paris borrowings. For example: routine, police, machine, ballet, matinee, scene, technique, bourgeois5, etc ... Italian also contributed a lot of words to English: piano, violin, opera, alarm. Historical analysis shows the ways in which English vocabulary has developed, and major events, thanks to which many modern words have appeared. The second column in the table contains more groups, but it also includes a large number of words. Modern scientists believe that the percentage of borrowed words in English is approximately 65-70%, which is an extremely large number. This means that native elements do not dominate. This anomaly is explained by the rich history of the country and its numerous international connections Given the high percentage of borrowed words, someone would have to classify English as a language with an international basis, or at least Romance (since French and Latin words dominate noticeably over the others). But, thus, a pun turns out: native elements in the English language include a large number of frequently used words, such as articles, prepositions, pronouns, connected and auxiliary words, and also words denoting everyday objects and ideas ("house", "child", "water", "go", "come", "eat", "good", "bad", etc. ...) In addition, the grammatical structure is essentially German, and this leaves him (English) not subject to foreign influence. Etymological structure of English vocabulary Native Elements Borrowed Elements 1.Indo-European element I. Celtic (V - VI centuries AD). 2. German Element II. Latin 1st group: I century BC. 2nd group: VII century. ne Group 3: Renaissance 3. Own English element (not earlier than the 5th century AD) III. Scandinavian (VII - XI century. AD) Iv. French 1. Norman borrowing: XI - XIII century. ne 2. Paris borrowing (Renaissance) V. Greek (Renaissance) Vi. Italian (Renaissance and later) VII. Spanish (Renaissance and later) Viii. German Ix. Indian X. Russian and others The study of the vocabulary of modern English is of great interest in terms of etymology, since it includes a huge number of words from many languages belonging to different groups (Latin, Greek, French, German, etc.). Approximately 70% of the vocabulary of the English language are borrowed words and only 30% are original words. The Roman conquest, the introduction of Christianity, the Danish and Norman conquests, the British colonial system played a big role in the development of the vocabulary of the English language. In English, as one of the languages of the West German group, the following layers of vocabulary are distinguished: 1. The common Indo-European layer of words that forms the basis of the lexical composition of Germanic languages. This layer is easily distributed in semantic areas, reflecting the most significant aspects of human activity. It can be said with confidence that the core of the words most commonly used in the daily practice of human communication is Indo-European. These include the following: a) all pronouns and numerals; b) the names of family members (eg, English mother, other individual mātar, Greek mātēr, lat. māter); c) names of body parts and biological properties of a person (eg, English nose, other ind. nāsā, lat. nasus, it is nase); d) the names of living beings (eg, English ewe, other ind. ávih, Greek ó (v) is, Latin ovis); e) the names of natural phenomena, plants, substances (eg, English night, Russian night, other ind. nakti, Greek nýx, German Nacht); f) the most commonly used adjectives (for example, Russian. new, other ind. návas, Greek. ne (v) os, Latin. novus, German. neu); g) verbs denoting the most common actions and states (eg, Russian see, know, other ind. víd “know,” Greek (v) idein, lat. vidēre). 2. The common German layer of words that have parallels among the languages of the German group, for example, English. wife, him Weib, English bride, him. Braut, goth. bruÞs, et al. brúÞr. Words of Germanic origin are widely represented in ancient Germanic epic works. They constituted a significant percentage of the synonyms with which epic poems written in ancient Germanic languages were so rich. 3. Isolated words (or words with an unknown etymology) that occur in the same Germanic language. A significant number of similar words that existed in the ancient Germanic languages disappeared. Isolated words are usually few. According to I.B. Khlebnikov, "this is explained both by the fact of the kinship of languages, and by the fact that the vocabulary forms certain subsystems within which units are interconnected." Examples of isolated words may be the following: Eng. girl, bad, keep, him. Krieg. 4. Borrowing is quite numerous in modern English. In each of the languages at a certain period of its development, the number of borrowings is determined by the nature of the contacts of the speakers of the given language with the speakers of other languages or the influence of a foreign language culture. Some layers of borrowed vocabulary are common to Germanic languages. For example, contacts with the Roman Empire on the continent and the introduction of the Christian religion left their mark on the Germanic languages. In particular, a number of words were borrowed from the military sphere: lat. campus “military camp”, mist. Kampf, Eng. camp. Some words were also borrowed from the trade area, for example, lat. ponto Pfund, Eng. pound; lat vīnum, him. Wein wine. It should be noted that even in the ancient Germanic languages borrowed from the Celtic languages, such as Celt, penetrated. gaison “spear”, mute. Ger, eng. garlic ('spear-like'); Celt. dūnum ‘fortified place’, him. Zaun ‘fence’, Eng. town. However, the largest number of borrowed words in Old English was from Latin. In English, there are a number of words formed using borrowed and primordial foundations. For example, the word eatable consists of a verb stem to eat of primordial origin and the able suffix borrowed from French. Scandinavian borrowing Scandinavian lexical borrowings in English are different. Scandinavian borrowings refer to various semantic areas. Among them there are words related to the field of public administration, military terms, etc., as well as words of a domestic nature, which, in turn, prevail. Some of these words were borrowed in the Old English period, for example, husband, sky, fellow, window, ugly, wrong, die. Often, when entering the language, the Scandinavian word supplanted the corresponding Old English word, which until that time was commonly used. An example is the Old English verb niman ‘to take’, which in the Middle English period was supplanted by the word tāken Borrowing is one of the most "profitable articles" of the vocabulary for many languages. That is, from another language (usually the country where this phenomenon, concept, thing ... originated), a specific name is taken. A lot of words in different languages are borrowed, even those that seem to be completely their own. Modern English has arisen due to the great influence of German, French and Latin. Therefore, here you will be given an example of completely obvious borrowing. Borrowing from the Scandinavian languages led to the formation of Scandinavian-English etymological doublets. This happened when both etymologically parallel lexical units were preserved - the Scandinavian and original English words. The difference between the Scandinavian and English forms of the word was used for semantic differentiation, as a result of which two different, though etymologically identical, words were formed. Examples of the Scandinavian-English etymological doublets are the lexical unit shirt, which is an English word with the transition sc> sh, and the word skirt with the characteristic combination of scandinavian languages sk. The original English words, as a rule, have etymological doublets in other Germanic languages, for example, English. house - him Haus, gol. huis norve hus, swedish hus. Borrowing from the Scandinavian languages not only led to the replenishment of the vocabulary of the English language, but also in a special way influenced the "old" vocabulary. This influence was expressed, on the one hand, in the repression of a number of words or a change in their meaning, on the other - in the formation of etymological doublets and synonymous pairs. French borrowing The first French borrowings appeared in English before the Norman Conquest, but the French influence on English vocabulary was most pronounced in the XIV century. The French words, unlike the Scandinavian ones, were borrowed mainly by the highest strata of society and were of the so-called “aristocratic” character, since they reflected the interests, tastes and life of the Norman nobility. Among these borrowings are words denoting feudal titles; words from the spheres of government, justice, legal proceedings, military affairs, and the life of the feudal court; words related to music, literature, art; words from the field of urban crafts; words related to religion. Here are some of them: emperor, baron, duke, government, justice, court, condemn, battle, pleasure, leisure, dinner, beef, mutton, color, tailor, religion, charity, prayer, saint, etc. Borrowing from the French language led to the formation of a number of English-French etymological doublets in English. The origin and sources of these doublets are different. A number of them formed on the basis of a common Indo-European lexical layer in the Germanic and Romance languages. An example would be couples like Sovrem. friar As a result of the changes that occurred in the Middle English period, the lexical composition of the English language becomes mixed, which is a significant difference from the vocabulary of the Old English language. Latin, Spanish and other borrowings The epoch of development of capitalist production relations in England had a great influence on the English language of the new period. A large number of words came out of use, referring to objects and phenomena that existed during the period of development of feudalism. Thanks to traveling to distant countries, the British met with many new items for them. As a result of Europeans mastering these subjects, the language of the new period was supplemented with a number of new words. Evidence of this are such English words as tobacco, tomato, potato. Due to the special meaning that Spain had in the 16th century, many of these words penetrated into the English language through the Spanish language, and therefore have such a specific sound design. It should also be noted that the in-depth study of classical antiquity, the development of philosophy and the natural sciences caused the emergence of new objects, concepts and characteristics, for the designation of which English did not have lexical means at that time. As a result, this led to the entry of a significant layer of Latin borrowings into the language: annual, cordial, lunar, solar, gelid, frigid, atrocious, exterior, interior, to accumulate, to collide, etc. The lexical composition of the English language in the new period of development is also enriched by borrowing from the languages of the advanced countries of the XV - XVII centuries - Italian, Spanish, Dutch and Russian. Italian borrowings associated with the Renaissance, relate mainly to the field of music, painting, architecture, literature, for example, violin, opera, aria, duet, fresco, macaroni, etc. The Spanish influence on the English language was particularly noticeable in connection with the discovery of America. Among the words borrowed from the Spanish language, there are a number of words from different languages of American natives. Examples of Spanish borrowings are as follows: armada, banana, bravado, cargo, canoe, chocolate, cigar, cork, maize, Negro, etc. In the 16th - 17th centuries, in connection with the development of political and trade relations between Russia and England, English was enriched with a significant number of Russian words relating to Russian life, reflecting the features of government, public relations, a system of measures, monetary units, etc. At that time, such words as boyar, Cossack, tsar, altyn, rouble, verst, poud, vodka, etc. were borrowed. In a later period, when England became a powerful colonial power, words from the languages of American Indians, natives of Australia, South Africa, India, etc., penetrate into English. These words denote the characteristics of the life of the native tribes, the names of local animals, plants, various products and etc. Examples of such words are moccasin, squaw, toboggan, wigwam, boomerang, kangaroo, baobab, zebra, Brahman, cashmere, bungalow, bamboo, etc. In linguistic literature devoted to borrowings in modern English, there is a perception that German borrowings are quite small and that their role is insignificant, and from the point of view of semantics, these borrowings are usually represented by scientific terms and to a lesser extent by realities. However, the Robin Knapp dictionary on the Internet includes 191 German borrowings. These words are German both in origin and in the source of borrowing. The morpheme composition of most of the occurring units includes not only German, but also their English variants or correspondences, for example, diener / deaner (Diener “servant”, “a man-of-all-work in a laboratory”), doubleganger (Doppelgänger “the ghost of a living person ”,“ a double ”), etc. These facts testify to the assimilation of data of German borrowings in the morphological, phonetic and graphic plans. It can be concluded that words over a long period of time were borrowed from various languages as a result of trade, scientific, military, cultural and other contacts and, consequently, borrowing can relate to different PLGs as well as to be used in different functional styles. International words Words that are borrowed in several languages are called international. The concepts conveyed by such words are very significant for the process of communication. Most of these words in European languages are of Latin and Greek origin; These include the names of the sciences: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. Art words also apply to this layer, for example, music, theater, drama, tragedy. The international vocabulary also includes political terms: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy. The fields of science and technology include words such as telegraphy, telemetry, radio, asymmetry. Some international words were translated into different languages from English: football, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby. The names of some exotic fruits and foods are also international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, banana, mango, etc. International words have relatively the same pronunciation in different languages, and their meanings are understandable to people taking part in communication Download 57.9 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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