Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
part of the Interkosmos programme, but was
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mission, this time to Mir. This was not part of the Interkosmos programme, but was subject to a new agreement being signed between GlavKosmos and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in August 1986. As the Bulgarians were supplying a larger package of experiments and due to their significant involvement in the Interkosmos programme, this was treated more as a partnership mission than one of the newly created commercial ventures with other countries. A new selection process was started early in November 1986 and after a review of the candidates, four military pilots were short-listed. They were Aleksandr Aleksandrov (the former back-up CR for Soyuz 33), Plamen Aleksandrov (the younger brother of Aleksandr, making them the first brothers to be short-listed for space flight training), Georgiy Ivanov (the unlucky CR aboard Soyuz 33) and Krasimir Stoyanov. Unfortunately, Ivanov would not get a second chance to fly in space, as Aleksandr Aleksandrov and Krasimir Stoyanov were selected for further training in January 1987. In December, Aleksandrov was named as prime candidate and flew the Soyuz TM 5 mission to Mir in June 1988. The mission was designated `Skipka 88.' European Space Agency (ESA) During a conference of ESA Member States, held in Granada, Spain, during November 1992, ESA decided to pursue stronger links with the Russians for further manned space flights, with the aim of gaining experience in long duration space flight, something that the American Shuttle could not provide. In the decade since Spacelab 1, only four representatives of ESA had flown on Shuttle flights, and with plans for the Columbus research laboratory to be attached to the International Space Station, a pair of precursor flights was planned as EUROMIR 94 (30 days) and EUROMIR 95 (135 days). On 7 May 1993, four ESA astronauts were named as a team to train for the missions. Ulf Merbold from Germany and Pedro Duque from Spain would train for EUROMIR 94, while Thomas Reiter from Germany and Christer Fuglesang from Sweden would train for EUROMIR 95. Of the four, only Merbold had flown in space (twice, in 1983 and 1992), aboard the US Shuttle and he International guests and commerical agreements 219 had been a member of the original Spacelab selection in 1977. The four completed an ESA basic training course at the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany, before moving to TsPK in August 1993 for a second basic training course, this time focused on Russian cosmonaut training. In early 1994, the team began more specific mission training, but remained as a group until 30 May 1994, when it was announced that Merbold would fly the EUROMIR 94 mission (launched 4 October 1994 and landed 4 November 1994), with Duque as his back-up. With that assignment the EUROMIR 95 pair continued training for their own mission, until Reiter was named as prime and Fuglesang as back-up on 17 March 1995. A significant difference for this assignment was that both men had continued training at Star City and had qualified as Soyuz Flight Engineers over their previous qualification of Cosmonaut Researchers. The mission, flown between 3 September 1995 and 29 February 1996, included two EVAs by Reiter, and a highly successful experiment programme. ESA was so delighted with the results of EUROMIR 94 and 95 that they tried to gain support for a 45-day EUROMIR 97 mission, with Fuglesang as primary cosmonaut. But member states were not forthcoming with financial support for the plan and attention shifted to ISS, which would offer a whole new arena of discussions, opportunities, bartering, frustrations and disappointments (see Joint Programmes page 251). France
Between 1979 and 1999, the French operated a highly successful cooperative programme of manned space flights with the Soviets/Russians. A total of seven missions were flown to Salyut 7 and Mir during this period, totalling over 292 days by five spationauts (four men and one woman). The CNES space agency was able to use this extensive series of missions to train a small cadre of spationauts to a very high standard and by assigning both a prime and a back-up, they were able to capitalise on the training opportunities and not waste the investment of training a back-up who would not fly. Salyut 7 (1982) In September 1979, the French Space Agency, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), began a programme to select a cosmonaut to fly on a Soviet spacecraft, the first such offer to a non-communist country. By 15 November 1979, a total of 413 applications had been received, from which only 193 (including 26 women) were nominated for further selection. In the first phase, a programme of medical examinations and an overall assessment was emphasised, including general competence, familiarity with scientific equipment, and linguistic and sporting abilities. Only 72 remained for further consideration after this. During December 1979 and January 1980, an extensive programme of medical examinations and tests (lasting a week), psychological examinations (three days) and special physiological tests (three days), resulted in a short-list of seven candidates (including two women). In January and February 1980, tests of general competence and scientific aptitude, including linguistic skills, reduced the group to five finalists: Major Patrick Baudry, Lt-Colonel Jean-Loup ChreÂtien, Gerard Juin, Major Jean-Pierre Joban, and FrancËoise Varnier. Unfortunately the female candidate, Varnier, was eliminated 220 International training Claudie HaignereÂ, the French and ESA astronaut, training in the TM simulator as part of her training to gain Flight Engineer status from the programme due to a parachute accident, but the other four went to TsPK for three months of intensive Russian language training in March 1980. On 12 June, ChreÂtien and Baudry were named for cosmonaut training, which began on 7 September 1980. A year later, ChreÂtien was named as prime for the mission (Soyuz T 6) to Salyut 7, which was launched on 24 June 1982. Aragatz (1988) Following the Salyut 7 mission, French authorities lobbied for a second, longer flight of up to two months, which was agreed in October 1985. By then, a new cadre of French spationauts had been selected for future flights on European, American or Soviet missions. Selected from over 600 applicants in September 1985, they were Jean-FrancËois Clervoy; Claudie AndreÂ-Deshays; Jean- Jacques Favier; Jean-Pierre HaignereÂ, FreÂdeÂric Patat, Michel Tognini and Michel Viso. In July 1986, four military pilot candidates (ChreÂtien; Tognini, Haignere and Antoine Covette ± a finalist of the spationaut group) went to TsPK for medical examinations, with ChreÂtien and Tognini being named for the mission training programme (that included EVA training) in August 1986. ChreÂtien was again named as prime and Tognini as back-up, due to the former's past experience and his competence both during and after his first mission. With an EVA planned, the Soviets decided to go with proven experience for this first long duration `guest' mission. Training started on 15 November 1986 and the mission was launched on 26 November 1988, landing on 21 December after 24 days 18 hours. This was shorter International guests and commerical agreements 221
than the planned two months, but far longer than any guest cosmonaut flight had logged to date. During his second mission, ChreÂtien completed a 4-hour 20-minute EVA, the first non-career cosmonaut to perform an EVA from a Soviet spacecraft. The mission had cost an estimated US$ 30 million, but was arranged as a scientific cooperative flight, rather than a purely commercial one. Antares (1992) Another cooperative agreement was reached between the French and Soviets on 25 November 1988 (the day before ChreÂtien was launched on his second mission), allowing a French cosmonaut to visit Mir once every two years. After discussions on the amount France would pay the Soviets for each flight (originally the Soviets wanted US$ 15.4 million for a third mission and the French countered with US$ 5 million, but the agreement reached was US$ 12.3 million), the contracts were signed on 22 December 1989 for a fourteen-day flight in 1992, with twelve days aboard Mir. France continued to emphasise that the cooperative flights were scientifically based and not purely commercial, and that the fee included both the services of Soviet visiting experts during flight preparations and the supply of French-developed research experiments and hardware that would remain aboard the station. Six candidates were nominated for this mission in July 1990; Majors Leopold Eyharts, Jean-Marc Gasparini, Philippe Perrin and Benoit Silve, and Lt- Colonels Jean-Pierre Haignere and Michel Tognini. Eyharts, Gasparini, Perrin and Silve had been selected by CNES in a second group of career spationauts earlier in 1990. In August, Tognini was named as prime candidate, with Haignere as back-up, and both men arrived at TsPK on 5 January 1991 to begin their cosmonaut training programme for the mission. Tognini had been selected because of his previous knowledge of Russian as back-up to the Aragatz mission. The crews were confirmed on 7 July 1992 and Tognini flew the mission from 27 July to 9 August 1992. Altair (1993) At the end of 1991, three spationauts were identified for preliminary weightless training at TsPK, as part of their preparations for possible flights to Mir; Jean-FrancËois Clervoy, Claudie AndreÂ-Deshays and Major Leopold Eyharts. On 28 July 1992, the day after the launch of Tognini to Mir, a contract was signed for two more missions. A pattern was now emerging for these missions in which the back-up for one flight normally utilised this training to fly the next mission, so Haignere was named to a mission that would last three weeks, including nineteen days aboard the station. His back-up was named as Claudie AndreÂ-Deshays and their training began in November 1992 at TsPK. The mission was flown between 1 and 22 July 1993. Cassiopee (1996) This mission was, as previously, signed off the day after the launch of the previous mission, on 2 July 1993, with AndreÂ-Deshays assigned to make the sixteen-day flight and Leopold Eyharts as her back-up. The mission was flown between 17 August and 2 September 1996. Pegasus (1998) The penultimate French flight to Mir was planned for early August 1997, but was delayed by events on the station (the collision of the Progress M-34 re- supply craft on 25 June) and medical issues concerning the back-up spationaut. Eyharts was scheduled to fly the mission with Haignere as his back-up (replacing the originally assigned Viso), but Haignere injured his leg during a badminton match on 222 International training Energiya cosmonaut Sergey Treschchev working on the ISS simulator at the training centre
14 July 1997, resulting in his return to France with a torn ligament. On 21 July it was decided to move the French flight back one mission, as the injury left Eyharts without a back-up. He was eventually launched to Mir on 29 January 1998, landing 21 days later on 19 February. Perseus (1999) By the time the seventh Russian/French mission (sixth to Mir) took off on 20 February 1999, Mir was close to the end of its operational programme. The primary candidate was Haignere and his back-up was AndreÂ-Deshays. This was due in part to saving time on training, as both had experienced Mir residency and benefited from having gone through the training cycle before (in fact Haignere completed four crew assignments within the Mir programme, and Deshays, three). In December 1996, CNES had negotiated an agreement with RKK Energiya for a 99- day mission. When it was decided that Haignere would remain on Mir with the Russian resident crew, the mission was extended to 168 days. Launched on 20 February 1999, the mission actually lasted 188 days 20 hours (setting a new non- Russian endurance record), landing on 28 August and ending the highly successful French Salyut/Mir programme. Germany In 1989, discussions were underway with East Germany to fly a cosmonaut on a second mission, this time to Mir for a month in either 1992 or 1993. Both Interkosmos cosmonauts JaÈhn and KoÈllner were in line, with KoÈllner as favourite, International guests and commerical agreements 223
Claudie Haignere on the cycle machine which is located in the medical department of the training centre but historic events in both Germany and the former Soviet Union at this time effectively cancelled any plans to fly a cosmonaut from East Germany. However interest continued from West Germany, and subsequently from the unified country. Mir 92 (1992) The preliminary agreements were signed on 25 October 1988 for a mission to Mir, but difficult negotiations, particularly financial, delayed the flight, which was planned as an eight-day visit in the first half of 1992. Unfortunately, this was also the scheduled launch time of the second German Spacelab Dmission on the American Shuttle and it was announced that candidates for the Mir mission would be chosen from the team assigned to Spacelab D2, already in basic training at the German Space Agency (DLR) Crew Training Complex in Cologne. These candidates were Renate BruÈmmer, Ulrich Walter, Gerhard Thiele, Heike Walpot and Hans Schlegel, all selected in August 1987. With two to be assigned as prime on Spacelab D2 and three as back-ups, if two back-ups were reassigned from D1 to the 224 International training Mir mission, it was unclear whether a second back-up would be assigned to D2 from the former D1 astronauts (in the event this was not pursued). In May 1990, DLR named Reinhold Ewald and Klaus Flade (unselected finalists from the German August 1987 selection) to train for the proposed Mir 92 mission at TsPK from November 1990, with military pilot Flade assigned as prime candidate and Ewald as his back-up. Flade was launched to Mir on 17 March 1992, returning to Earth after a successful mission on 24 March. Mir 97 (1997) After to the success of Mir 92, the Germans were eager to start discussions with the Russians in 1995 for a second flight. Originally designated Mir 96 for a late 1996 launch, the mission slipped into the following year and as a result, was redesignated Mir 97. The DLR German astronaut team had been disbanded in November 1993 (with ESA taking a lead in crew training for European nations), but as negotiations continued for the second German Mir mission, Walpot and Walter started Russian language lessons in the spring of 1995. With the Shuttle-Mir programme operating at this time, early plans suggested the return of the German on the Shuttle, which would have extended the training programme. But when it became clear that the Shuttle flight schedule would not be timed for the German mission, a launch and landing by Soyuz meant switching the training to a cosmonaut programme. Drawing on his past training with Mir 92, Ewald was assigned to the training programme, along with former Spacelab D2 astronaut Schlegel, who had to take a basic Russian language course before starting training for the mission in late 1995. In May 1996, Ewald was confirmed as prime candidate for the mission and was launched on 10 February 1997. After a largely uneventful mission, apart from the fire in one of the oxygen candles in the Kvant module on Mir on 23 February, the mission ended with a successful landing on 2 March. In the summer of 1997, Schlegel resumed Soyuz-Mir training, aimed at a possible third German mission in 1999 which was not forthcoming. Kazakhstan The Kazakhstan government was putting pressure on the Soviet authorities to include ethnic Kazakhs on a flight crew, due to the Republic's long association with the Soviet space programme. All manned launches have started from the Baykonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and the region also hosts the primary recovery area. A number of Soviet cosmonauts had been born in Kazakhstan, but were of Russian descent, mainly from military families serving there. There was mounting political pressure to send a Kazakh national cosmonaut into space and as a result, in 1989, a selection process for new cosmonauts was initiated that included Kazakh applicants. They were to be confirmed in August 1991, but the abortive right-wing coup in the Soviet Union that month postponed the meeting of the commission, and the subsequent political disintegration of the Soviet Union over the next few months cancelled this selection process, although four candidates including one Kazakh ± test pilot Toktar O. Aubakirov ± were `selected' unofficially. Final approval came in May 1992, after Aubakirov had already flown in space. He was one of the top pilots in the Soviet Union, working for the MiG design bureau. Originally to be flown as a separate International guests and commerical agreements 225 mission, his flight was changed as a result of budget cuts and combined with the AustroMir mission flown between 2 and 10 October 1991. Aubakirov stated that he was flying for `Kazakhstan in the USSR'. He completed only a four-month Cosmonaut Researcher training programme and, having been enrolled in the cosmonaut team at the personal request of the Kazakh president in January 1991, he never flew in space again. His back-up was former commercial airline pilot, Talgat Musabayev, who was selected for cosmonaut training in May 1990 and assigned to the Kazakh mission. He was selected when a search of the Soviet Air Force failed to find a suitable military candidate and arrived at TsPK in October 1990. After serving as back-up on the Kazakh flight, Musabayev transferred to the Russian Air Force and joined the cosmonaut team full time, helping to deflect criticism of the lack of ethnic Kazakhs in the team. He went on to have an impressive cosmonaut career, with two long duration missions to Mir (totalling over 341 days), a visiting mission to ISS and seven EVAs. Musabayev became one of the most successful `international cosmonauts', who worked with a number of other international cosmonauts and astronauts. Slovakia
The Slovak Republic began a cosmonaut selection programme during the summer of 1997 for a 1999 flight to Mir. The flight was a way of easing the debt owed to the Slovaks by the former Soviet Union and the selection programme was directed by General Stefan Gombika, a finalist in the 1976 Czech Interkosmos selection. From the thirty military pilots screened, four finalists were identified in February 1998: Colonel Martin Babyak, Lt-Col Michal Fulier, Major Ivan Bella and Captain Miroslaw Groshaft. On 23 March 1998, though the formal agreement remained to be signed, Fulier and Bella were selected to begin cosmonaut training immediately and as they were both fluent in Russian, this alleviated the need for language training. The mission was flown by Bella (with Fulier as back-up) during 20±28 February 1999, making Bella one of the last (with HaignereÂ) international cosmonauts to visit Mir. The mission followed the profile of the Interkosmos flights two decades earlier. Slovakia was a new nation and Remek, the first Czechoslovakian cosmonaut, was a Czech Republic citizen. National pride still plays a part in space exploration, and access to it. United Kingdom The first offer to fly a Briton to a Soviet space station was made during May 1986, but nothing came of it. GlavKosmos became involved in 1988 and, after much rumour and discussion, the agreement was signed on 29 June 1989. In July 1989 an advert was placed in UK national newspapers for astronaut applicants, with `no experience necessary', for what was to be the first flight of a Briton in space, under the Project Juno mission to Mir in 1991. Around 13,000 applications were received and over the next five months, that number was reduced in stages, first to 3,000 that filled in application forms, then to 150 who were called for medical screenings and evaluations of scientific ability, and then to 36 put forward for extensive medical tests. Sixteen of these were nominated for decompression chamber and centrifuge tests at Farnborough Aeronautical Research Centre, and the short-list of six from these tests was further reduced to four by the Soviets on 5 November 1989. They 226 International training were Lt-Commander Gordon J. Brooks, Major Timothy K. Mace, Ms. Helen P. Sharman and Mr. Clive P.G. Smith. On 25 November 1989, Sharman and Mace were named as finalists and began their training at TsPK five days later. Financial problems threatened the mission for some time, and it took almost a year to resolve the difficulties. Sharman was named primary candidate on 22 February 1991 and eventually flew the mission between 18 and 26 May 1991. Near, Middle and Far Eastern Cosmonauts In addition to cosmonauts from more `local' nations, the Soviet Union, and more recently Russia, has pursued agreements to fly cosmonauts from a variety of eastern nations for over twenty years. 25 Afghanistan The agreement to fly an Afghan on a Soviet space mission was reached on 20 July 1987, with the formal agreement signed on 30 September 1987. The flight would take place in the first half of 1989, which was typical for this type of mission, allowing eighteen months of basic Cosmonaut Researcher training and mission training by the Afghan cosmonauts. During November and December 1987, the selection process was completed, resulting in 457 applicants. Of these, 52 were qualified for further consideration and then this group was reduced first to eighteen, then to eight, who went to Moscow in January 1988 for further selection, scrutiny and examination by the chief Medical Commission. The agreement for the flight was signed on 11 February and two days later, Captain Abdul Ahad Mohmand and Download 3.5 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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