Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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208 Titov, V.** 11 74
Kondakova 57 21 78 Sharipov
7 16 23 Ryumin 43 23 66 Dezhurov
11 26 37 Strekalov 13 25 38 Onufriyenko 19 29
Usachev 5 0 5 Budarin
15 25 40 Solovyov, A. 17 3 20 Totals
278 370
648 * Totals only include formal training, not the time spent by individuals in initial preparation using workbooks in Russia. ** Includes back-up and prime training on STS-60 and STS-63 Mission Specialist training also included instruction on the Shuttle life support and communication systems in both nominal and off-nominal situations, payload activities, Earth observation and photographic activities. On one mission (Krikalev on STS-60), cosmonaut duties included the use of the Shuttle Remote Manipulator 254 Joint programmes
System (RMS), and on another flight (Titov on STS-86), the cosmonaut was trained in American EVA operations. All cosmonauts conducted egress and emergency egress operations to ensure personal and crew safety under all conditions. This included trips to KSC, Florida, for on-site training. Cosmonauts also received training on the operation and scope of crew equipment, hardware and facilities (meal preparation, stowage, exercise equipment, waste management, etc.) and trained as crew members of T 38 aircraft for flights to and from JSC and KSC as required, with a member of the NASA astronaut corps piloting the aircraft. Where cosmonauts were only serving as passengers to and from Mir (Dezhurov, Strekalov, Onufriyenko, Usachev, Budarin and A. Solovyov), their training was reduced and mainly focused on keeping the cosmonauts safe. This included training in the life and crew support systems. For Mir crews that only visited the Shuttle while in orbit during docked phases, training focused on a general familiarity with the Shuttle crew compartments, life support systems and transfer operations between the two vehicles. This generally averaged out at about 36 hours for each Mir resident cosmonaut crew member. Some of the payload training for cosmonauts also occurred during joint sessions in the United States. The first Russian Mission Specialists In the articles of agreement between NASA and the Russian Space Agency, dated 5 October 1992, Article I (Description of Cooperation) 4 stated that `An experienced cosmonaut will fly on the Space Shuttle on the STS-60 mission, which is currently scheduled for November 1993. The cosmonaut will become an integral member of the crew and will be trained as a Mission Specialist on Shuttle systems, flight operations, and manifested payload procedures, following the existing Shuttle practices. In addition, the RSA will nominate two cosmonauts for approval by NASA as `candidates' for STS-60. One would be designated prime, the other as back-up. Both would receive NASA Mission Specialist astronaut training until the time STS-60 begins dedicated mission training.' Once the crew had been assigned, the back-up cosmonaut would complete as much training as was practical. Their arrival at NASA JSC Houston was scheduled for October 1992. Article IV (Selection of Candidates), stated that the selection of suitable flight candidates would be based on mutual agreements, but that all candidates would be flight experienced. The cosmonauts were also expected to have `a sufficient knowledge of English in both verbal and written forms.' Under Article V (Training), the cosmonauts would be based at NASA JSC, assigned to the Astronaut Office (Code CB) in the Flight Crew Operations Directorate. At the start of training, each candidate would be required to enter into a Standard of Conduct Agreement with NASA, which included safety and security matters, prohibition to use the position for private gains, recognising the authority of the Mission Commander and limiting the use of information gained or used from the training or mission. 5 Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 255 Table 12 Cosmonau t Shuttle-Mir Training ± Systems, procedures and
hardware (hours)
Cosm onaut
Int. Int.
Int. Orb
it Asc
ent Orb
it Crew
EVA PDRS
Pa yloads
Rndz / Sp acelab Spac
ehab Tot
al Name
Asc ent
Ent ry Orb it Ops
Entry Sys
tems Sys
tems Pr ox ops Krikale
v* 1 15 75 53 63 9 70 24 151 70 70 0 16 617 Tito v V.** 17 30 162 117 178
10 103
137 75 28 34 0 46 937 Kond
akova 1 7 50 60 21 8 70 13 0 6 22 0 27 285 Sharip ov 1 7 50 0 4 0 50 0 0 2 0 0 3 117 Ryu
min 0 7 40 36 8 8 74 0 0 0 15 0 12 200 Dezh urov
0 0 7 0 4 8 12 0 0 0 0 1 0 32 Stre kalov 0 0 7 0 4 0 12 0 0 0 0 2 0 25 Onuf riyenko
0 0 7 9 4 0 50 0 0 2 0 2 0 74 Usa chev 0 0 0 9 0 0 30 0 0 2 0 2 0 43 Buda rin
0 0 7 9 8 0 61 0 0 2 0 2 0 89 Solov yov, A. 0 0 12 9 4 0 49 0 0 2 0 2 0 78 TO TALS 20 66 417 302 298
43 581
174 226
114 141
11 104
2497 * The ta ble
reflects only
formal train
ing for
each co smonau t. The
numbe rof
hour sspent
with workb
ooks durin
g initial
pre paration
tr aining
w hile
stil lin
Rus sia
is not
recorde d ** Vlad imir
Tito v co mplete d two train ing
cyc les
for STS-6
3 and
STS-8 6. He was also
back -up
to Krikale
v on STS-6 0, and
vice versa
on STS-6
3. It was not cle
ar in the report if the train ing
time s inc luded back
-up training. 256 Joint programmes
Sergey Krikalev practices operating the Shuttle RMS during a training exercise at the Shuttle mock-up and integration laboratory, Bldg 9 at JSC September 1993. (Courtesy NASA) First cosmonauts selected for NASA training `Of course I would like to fly on the Space Shuttle. It's a chance to fly on new technology,' stated veteran Mir cosmonaut Sergey Krikalev (through an interpreter), during a visit to the NASA Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 18 August 1992. Krikalev, accompanied by his Soyuz TM 12 commander, Anatoliy Artsebarskiy, was in the United States to attend a space conference in Washington DC and visited KSC for a goodwill tour of facilities and to meet with dignitaries. 6 A few weeks later, on 6 October 1992, his wish came closer when he was named with Colonel Vladimir Titov as the two Russian cosmonauts who would train as Shuttle Mission Specialists, with one flying on STS-60. Both were experienced cosmonauts, with Titov having logged over 367 days in space, including a single 365-day residence on Mir. Krikalev has also lived on Mir and his two missions logged in excess of 463 days. They would arrive at JSC in late October. 7 On 28 October, the NASA crew for STS-60 was named as Charles Bolden (Commander), Kenneth Reightler (Pilot), and Franklin Chang-Diaz, Jan Davis and Ron Sega as Mission Specialists. The cosmonauts spoke to the American press (through an interpreter) for the first time on 10 November. Krikalev stated, `We have already started the training and learning the materials necessary for the accomplishment of the mission.' Titov added, `Hopefully, the experience of cooperation we gain here will lay the foundation for the future work between our cosmonauts and scientists and will be followed by other endeavours.' Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 257 Their families would not arrive until 21 November and both cosmonauts recognised that their wives and children would experience some difficulties in adjusting to life in Houston. 8 Initial Mission Specialist training flow for cosmonauts In the first Russian MS training flow (for STS-60 only), NASA planned 574 total hours for each cosmonaut. This included: Table 13: Russian MS Training Flow (STS-60) Course
Hours Ascent flight operations 16 Orbit flight operations 10 De-orbit and entry flight operations 09 Payload deployment and retrieval systems (RMS) 51 Orbiter systems 84 Rendezvous and proximity operation 25 Data Processing systems/software 16 Crew systems 65 Flight support 14 Informal training 186 Total
476 In addition, there were 98 hours planned for training as a crew member on the T 38 jet. Several adjustments had to be made to the training programme to take into account the shortage of time (twelve months from announcement to flight), to include a full Ascan MS training programme (twelve months), and for specific mission training time (9±12 months). The basic Ascan training programme was abandoned, largely because the cosmonauts were already experienced and qualified. There was also an adjustment to accommodate the language barrier and because very little of the repetitive training was needed. Work books were used only as reference, with one-hour briefings given before each lesson, for which the cosmonauts had an interpreter. The lessons were conducted separately for each cosmonaut, with no interpreter. By early January 1993, the basic training was on schedule, but at a point where the Payload Deployment and Retrieval System (PDRS) and Rendezvous (RNDZ) training flows were starting, which were the most difficult parts of the remaining course work to master. These would also provide the best demonstration of which cosmonaut was beginning to master the English language most effectively. In the first six weeks of 1993, there was little time for the Russians to participate in crew activities other than completing basic MS training. The NASA training team was very sensitive about overloading the cosmonauts, with time included for study and reflection, so it was important that gaps in the training course remained free. As the basic course wound down, the decision about which cosmonaut would fly and which would be back-up 258 Joint programmes
Sergey Krikalev prepares to operate an M-113 armoured personnel carrier as part of emergency egress training for STS-88 at KSC in Florida, November 1998. Fellow STS- 88 astronauts Bob Cabana and Fred Sturckow are at rear had to be made, but discussions were already being held about the feasibility of flying the second cosmonaut as well, enthusiastically supported by the training team. 9 Basic training lasted from late October 1992 to early February 1993, and mission training from then until launch in February 1994 (the mission was delayed from November 1993 as a result of launch delays and priorities from other 1993 Shuttle missions). In December 1993, the STS-60 training manager and instructors responsible for training the prime and back-up cosmonauts for STS-60 compiled a set of memos, listing lessons learned from training the cosmonauts for the mission. These had important implications for the forthcoming flights of other Russian cosmonauts on the Shuttle, under Shuttle-Mir or the future ISS programme. 10 The decision was made early in the planning of cosmonaut assignments to a Shuttle mission that they would fly as a Mission Specialist `with substantial onboard duties', as opposed to Payload Specialist with very few. The training department and astronaut office stated that, preferably, the cosmonauts would be fluent in English and should begin their training in the United States several months prior to normal crew assignment (3,000-hour level, or about nine months), which for STS-60 was February 1993 for a November 1993 launch. However, it appears that no one at JSC had any input into who the Russians selected for the mission and found out `at the last minute' who they were. The cosmonauts themselves had very little time to prepare for the assignment before being rushed over to Houston in November 1992, with only three months to complete the equivalent of the pilot pool flow. Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 259 Originally, it was planned to use training manuals in written English, but it soon became evident that the lack of technical English ability and the time limitations meant that a series of introductory briefings with translators was required to prepare the cosmonauts for the Single System Trainers (SST). An already modified training flow had to be modified again in real-time to accommodate the steep learning curve for both the cosmonauts and the instructors. It was already recognised that this would be a major challenge and as a result, the SMS team and team leaders were hand picked. That same team would provide as much of the cosmonauts' non-SMS training as possible. STS-60 Training feedback notes In the feedback from the STS-60 training team, the following points were observed: T. Capps, STS-60 Training Manager Notes dated 15 November 1993 identified a variety of pointers for the future training of cosmonauts in the United States: Personal Provision of furnished apartments only, with all bills paid. No houses to be used, as bill paying and associated decisions proved too complicated. Provision of an info package, in simple terms, for living and working in Texas and working at JSC, for such everyday needs as driving, parking, logistics, etc. Lesson materials Use workbooks as reference only material; clearly mark `Reference Only' on the books and turn as many of the workbooks into practical briefings as possible. Use visuals in all classes and provide a dictionary of applicable NASA terms and acronyms arranged in areas of concentration or systems. Provide audio- visuals for teaching English and personal computer interfaces directly to TsPK in Russia.
Teaching skills Separate the cosmonauts into different classes and individual lessons and reinforce the purpose and application of materials to motivate the cosmonauts. Instructors must inform the cosmonauts where any information does not appear to be learned and why this appears to be the case. Provide formal status to the cosmonauts to reveal their progress. (It was clear the cosmonauts were goal driven and needed to be informed of their level to reach a given goal). Designate back-ups to prime instructors to limit the number of interfaces with training staff. Limit confusion, and screen and limit the number of different presentations on the same subject. Tailor requirements to the individual and provide flexibility in training flows to accommodate each individual and their personal skills and shortcomings. Make decisions and stick with them and do not present too many options to the cosmonauts. Crew assignment It became clear that crew assignments and flight positions were identified early in the training flow and changed only if the performance of the cosmonauts warranted such a change. Focus on crew assignments and concentrate their curriculum on that position. Teach only the subject matter that is required. 260 Joint programmes
General remarks Channel all PAO activities through the training manager and/or the Commander. Lobby NASA Headquarters to get future cosmonauts to JSC two months earlier in the training cycle than the STS-60 selection, in order to concentrate on English language, `NASA-ology', culture and family logistics. Build time into the schedule for the gymnasium, limit T 38 training and accept these limitations. Simplify the logistics and decision making and try to provide and tell at the earliest point. Formularise team member's sharing of experiences and approaches that work. Bill West, the SMS Team 6 Training Instructor Notes dated 4 November 1993 stated that training for both cosmonauts began in November 1992 and continued for Krikalev as he prepared for STS-60. West trained Titov up to his inclusion in the crew for STS-63. The initial training consisted of a series of briefings that provided a basic overview of the Shuttle flight control, propulsion and guidance systems. This was followed by SST and Shuttle Mission Simulator (SMS) familiarisation sessions prior to specific STS-60 mission training. West summarised the lessons learned from training Krikalev and Titov and put forward recommendations for further training of cosmonauts. He explained that, prior to initial briefings, he obtained a copy of the ASTP Russian-to-English and English-to-Russian glossaries and a general Russian-to-English and English-to- Russian dictionary and used these in briefings and SST classes. When pointing out unfamiliar words in English, written right next to it in the dictionaries were the STS-60 back-up crewmember cosmonaut Vladimir Titov practices his skills in a small life raft during bailout training at the JSC WET-F, Bldg 29, during February 1993. (Courtesy NASA) Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 261 Russian equivalents, and when the cosmonauts were unsure of an English word, they pointed to the Russian listing with an English definition beside it. It was very basic, but it seemed to work well. When presenting briefings, West used simple diagrams of Shuttle systems, but labelled them in Russian using words copied from the technical glossaries. Wherever possible, he compared US systems to Russian ones, such as orbiter entry guidance vs. Soyuz entry guidance, or Soyuz propulsion systems vs. orbiter propulsion systems, and presented all numbers in both imperial and metric units. West found that the briefings took much longer than scheduled, with one briefing taking four hours instead of the normal two. Models and diagrams helped significantly in getting the point over to the cosmonauts. From his experiences on console training the STS-60 cosmonauts, West suggested that if a decision was made to train future cosmonauts as `full-up Mission Specialists', then more than a year should be allocated to training them. The information load thrown at them in the early weeks after arriving at JSC required several refresher sessions later on. West suggested, `It may be desirable to select several cosmonauts with an Ascan class and have them start (Shuttle) training from the beginning.' There also needed to be more time allocated to classes and briefings and the class size should be small. Titov, for example, was found more likely to try and speak English in a small group than a large one. West also stated, `I feel that it is a waste of time and money to send (training) personnel off to learn to speak Russian, unless they are going to Russia.' He felt it was much easier to have cosmonauts learn English than for an instructor to learn Russian. This raised the question of which language would be priority on ISS and implied that learning the language as soon as possible would be an advantage to future cosmonaut selections for American crews. Barbara Severance, STS-60 Ops/Nav Instructor In undated notes, she explained that the training was a compressed Ascan flow, and Download 3.5 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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