Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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their first session of instruction. The training course was divided into four periods, lasting about 18 months. 21 First Training Period (6±7 months) Most candidates found this to be the hardest part of the training programme, with lectures in basic theoretical education covering astronomy, navigation, mathematics and the Russian language. During these months, the candidates visited several factories responsible for the production of space flight hardware and systems and, occasionally, sites of national cosmonautics importance, such as the house of Konstantin Tsiolkovskiy and the museum of space achievements. They also completed a parachute jumping course and participated in fit tests for Sokol pressure garments. Training advisors included former cosmonauts Leonov, Volynov, 212 International training
Yeliseyev and Lazarev and towards the end of the first training period, a special training group of veteran cosmonauts was formed to prepare in parallel for the role of Soviet commander on the joint flights. Second Training Period (over 2 months) For the Interkosmos candidates, this period consisted of lessons on the basics of spacecraft technology, and it proved difficult even to the ardent students of technology. Used to the `aeronautics' of aircraft, the candidates found that the `astronautics' of spacecraft posed a completely different methodology of flying. Meanwhile, the experienced cadre of Soviet commanders worked on their role of taking a Soyuz to and from a Salyut station almost single-handed. Towards the end of this period, the Interkosmos candidates were `paired' with their Soviet commanders and identified as primary or back-up candidate. Chief of the training centre, former cosmonaut Lt-General Georgiy Beregovoy, announced the crew assignments, selecting from training performance and in sequence to mark significant events in the respective communist country's history, as well as for requirements in the Salyut manifest. However, poor performances, illness or better performance from the assigned back-up crew could result in a change of assignments, so all candidates had to be sure to put in 100% effort if they wanted to keep their flight. Third Training Period (about 4 months) The training programme became even busier during the third period. Teamed with an experienced Soviet commander, this was when they put theory into practice with numerous sessions (lasting up to six hours a day) in both the Soyuz and Salyut simulators, coupled with a series of endurance tests in the decompression chamber and centrifuges, while learning to operate as a crew. To achieve this meant long working days, extending an hour or two after the `official' TsPK working day finished at 2100 hours. The paired crew also socialised together, getting to know each other's families and accompanying each other on off-duty social events and visits. Though becoming closer as a crew, the Interkosmos cosmonauts were still restricted in what they could or could not handle inside the spacecraft. Czech cosmonaut Vladimir Remek indicated that tasks were strictly divided and observed between them. If he tried to touch something he was not supposed to, his hand would quickly be smacked by his commander (Aleksey Gubarev), creating what was termed `the red hands joke', something the first Western guest cosmonauts (the French) also experienced a few years later. Fourth Training Period (about 4±6 months) The final training period included specific mission training for the crews and familiarisation with the scientific instruments and experiments supplied by the relevant Interkosmos nation. This period covered repeated simulations of key mission events, such as launch, rendezvous, docking, work aboard the Salyut, undocking and landing. In addition, the crews completed water landing and water egress survival training in the Black Sea, and other wilderness survival training in the Interkosmos training 213
event of emergency landing situations. The physical endurance tests were stepped up, and simulator runs became daily as launch day approached. About one month prior to the planned mission, final exams were taken to confirm the primary and back-up positions. Down to Baykonur Two weeks prior to launch, the crews flew down to the Baykonur cosmodrome to begin familiarisation with their spacecraft, and the launch process and sequence of events they would follow on the day of launch. A few days before launch, the crews were confirmed and authorised for flight. Several of the Interkosmonaut candidates who were inspired by stories of Gagarin and the first cosmonauts were now about to follow them and make the journey from Earth to space themselves. First civilian cosmonaut commanders Between 1961 and 1978, all commanders of Soviet spacecraft were, by tradition, military pilots, with previous space flight experience where possible. This enabled them to `fly' the spacecraft during critical phases of the mission, including rendezvous, docking and undocking with other spacecraft, manual orientation of the spacecraft, manual alignment for re-entry, and landing. With the advent of Soyuz in 1967, the opportunity arose to regularly fly up to three cosmonauts on one crew. The second crew member was termed Flight Engineer, which was normally a former `test engineer' from the leading design bureau, Energiya (formerly OKB-1). They were responsible for monitoring onboard systems, and their training allowed them to take control over those systems from their control console if required. They also assisted the commander in phases of the flight. If a third member was aboard, they were termed `Research Engineer' and these, too, were normally from Energiya. Their tasks focused on spacecraft control during autonomous flight and upon docking to an orbital station, where they would work with the scientific research experiments. However, following the loss of the three Soyuz 11 cosmonauts due to sudden spacecraft decompression after a 23-day flight to Salyut 1 in 1971 (the result of not being issued with pressure suits for critical phases of the flight, including re-entry), the three-person Soyuz was redesigned to accommodate two people wearing pressure suits, the support equipment for which replaced the `research cosmonaut' seat. A three-person Soyuz was not reintroduced until 1980, so with the introduction of Soyuz Interkosmos flights from 1978, a change in the crew training was required. Commanders would now be trained to combine the responsibilities of both commander and flight engineer, which raised the question about which would be the most suitable to perform this function ± a military pilot or a civilian engineer? When the first training group for Interkosmos Soyuz commanders was formed from six experienced cosmonauts, two were civilian engineers from Energiya ± Nikolay Rukavishnikov and Valeriy Kubasov. In the Soviet crew selection system, competition between prime and back-up crews can often be beneficial and raise training standards. In some cases, however, it can be detrimental, raising issues that are often not resolved until the point of final selection. This could also be said of members of the different `groups' of cosmonauts (pilots, scientists, engineers, 214 International training doctors, etc.) in securing selection to training groups in the first place. There was also the long standing `argument' over assigning commanders from the military over civilian engineers. The American astronaut corps experienced a similar rift between the original pilot groups and the scientist astronauts recruited in the mid-1960s. As space flights in the 1960s and 1970s were essentially test flights, the argument became heated at times between selecting experienced test pilots who were used to evaluating high performance vehicles, and experienced engineers who had designed and tested the vehicles on the ground. The civilian cosmonauts apparently wanted to be given the chance to prove that, with the same training as a pilot cosmonaut, a `competent and physically strong engineer' had the required skills to control a Soyuz. The argument that pilots of aircraft within the atmosphere make natural cosmonauts was countered by the fact that flying a ballistic spacecraft like Soyuz bore little resemblance to flying such aircraft. By the time the first Interkosmos missions were selected, however, the opportunity for civilian commanders was available, as there were insufficient flight experienced cosmonauts available to fulfil all the crew positions, including back-up and support roles. Kubasov and Rukavishnikov were probably selected because of their recent `international' experience with Apollo-Soyuz (Kubasov was on the prime crew and Rukavishnikov on the crew of the reserve Soyuz). Both were also extremely capable engineers and veteran cosmonauts, with over a decade of training experience and two flights each behind them. Their assignment was perhaps secured, in part, as a result of an incident that happened on 13 February 1978. 22 Gubarev and Remek were completing their final simulation `exam' prior to determination of their status as a prime crew. This exam was monitored by fifty specialists in different departments across TsPK, listening in to the `Earth-to-orbit' communications simulating the air-to-ground commentary during the mission. The simulation had progressed well for most of the day when an outside communication was heard, alerting the crew to a change in the forthcoming commands from the regular sequence and, in effect, helping them to prepare for an unplanned activity and affecting their potential reaction time. The Energiya members of the staff examination panel were very upset about this leak, which affected the impartial assessment of the crew's ability to fly the mission. However, wishing to avoid an embarrassing and diplomatically difficult situation so close to launch, the crews were passed and allowed to fly the mission. Energiya argued that such a crew of pilot commander and a non-Soviet pilot researcher was not sufficiently trained or experienced in dealing with diversions from scheduled commands without help. Though not specifically citing this incident, Energiya apparently argued that a civilian engineer wouldn't need such prompting, being familiar with spacecraft systems and procedures from years in the design bureau and in ground testing. A case was put before the Central Committee of the Communist Party (responsible for the final decision of who or would not would fly on each mission) that civilians had the same right to command a mission as a military pilot. But it was an argument that was short-lived, because only two civilian cosmonauts commanded a national crew; one in 1979 (Rukavishnikov, who was not cycled to a second command and retired due to ill health) and one in 1980 (Kubasov, who also never flew again). It was not Interkosmos training 215
until ISS operations that civilian Energiya engineers were `allowed' to `command' a resident crew, but not until the first (Usachev) was taken to and from the station by the American Shuttle. The loss of Columbia and the lack of available experienced cosmonaut pilot commanders meant a number of 'civilian engineers' had to be trained as station commanders (and qualify as Soyuz commanders) for long duration resident crew training for ISS (Budarin, Kaleri, Krikalev). Lessons learned from Interkosmos The Interkosmos programme was a political and propaganda success. It also enabled Soviet space engineers to gain access to a lot of unique experiments prepared by key institutions and scientists from a number of countries. This was a cheap option and it did foster resentment in many Soviet cosmonauts, who would otherwise have occupied the second seat on these nine Soyuz missions. Having been removed from the flight schedule and passed over, some had to wait many more years to fly, while others were never called again. INTERNATIONAL GUESTS AND COMMERICAL AGREEMENTS In 1979, the Soviet space authorities began to expand their guest cosmonaut programme by offering flights to citizens of nations outside of Interkosmos. This was expanded in 1985 with a programme of international agreements based on commercial foundations, to attract much needed finances to the struggling Soviet programme. Though not totally successful, this programme was amended after the collapse of the Soviet Union to try to sell seats on Soyuz for flights to the Mir space station, until 2001 when the ISS station became the primary source of human endeavour in space. As well as the much needed injection of cash into the Soviet space programme, this programme created and delivered a range of new experiments to Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and Mir, to be worked on by various crews. International guests The offer of seats on Soyuz spacecraft to non-communist countries has its origins in April 1979, when the prospect of flying a French citizen was discussed during a visit to the Soviet Union by French President Valery Giscard d'Estaing. This led to joint discussions between the French and Soviet governments that summer. The success of the one-week flight of a French cosmonaut to the Salyut 7 station in 1982 prompted French scientists and officials to pursue longer flights in the future and led to a series of joint missions over the next fifteen years, making France one of the most successful countries to place its citizens in space on the spacecraft of other nations (Russian Soyuz or American Shuttle). In 1981, the Indian government reached an agreement with the Soviet Union to send two of its citizens to train at TsPK for a one-week flight (in 1984 to Salyut 7) and this was followed by similar agreements with Syria in 1985 and Afghanistan in 1989, resulting in flights to the Mir space complex. 216 International training Commercial agreements By 1985, the Soviets had recognised the political and financial benefits of offering `space seats for sale'. This resulted in a programme of commercial agreements with other nations for the sale of Soviet launch services, including the possibility of flying a foreign national to the Mir space station. This was initially promoted under the GlavKosmos organisation, created in 1985 and planned as a `Soviet NASA' to become a central organisation to coordinate all research, launches and cooperation on Soviet programmes, including that of development, management and marketing. Prior to this, a variety of governmental departments, institutions and facilities were involved in the decision making process of the Soviet programme. From the start, the operations of GlavKosmos were fraught with difficulties and restrictions, particularly financial, but though it would never really fulfil its promise of a commercial Soviet space service, it did generate a broad international cooperation in the marketing and sale of launch services. This brought in much needed investment to a struggling space programme, at a time of great economic, domestic and cultural difficulties after the fall of the Soviet Union and its evolution into the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and today's Russia. 23 During the period 1985±1990, GlavKosmos negotiated and agreed manned flights by citizens of Afghanistan, Austria, Japan, and the United Kingdom, as well as further flights by French cosmonauts. In 1990, GlavKosmos was replaced as the prime contractor by NPO Energiya and between 1990 and 2000, several more commercial agreements were negotiated with France, Germany, and organisations and individuals in the United States, independent of NASA. With mixed success, a more productive cooperative agreement also developed with ESA during the 1990s. By 2000, Mir was nearing the end of its operational life and the first resident crew was aboard the ISS. Russia's emphasis shifted to support the construction and expansion of the larger complex, but they also continued to pursue agreements with foreign countries for flights on Soyuz to the ISS (which are detailed separately in this book). In the late 1980s, several other countries were approached, or agreed in principle, to support commercial flights to the Mir station. However, the demise of the Soviet Union, the restriction of funds and resources in the 1990s (hardware, propellants, ground support finances), the agreement with the Americans to fly a series of NASA astronauts on the station in the mid to late 1990s, the in-flight difficulties of a fire and collision in 1997, and the growing emphasis on ISS, all meant that most of these `international Soyuz' flights (listed below) never materialised. Soyuz seats for sale The offer of joint manned flights in the 1980s and 1990s was extended to many countries around the world. Most were not taken up, but some led to other developments and cooperation in later programmes. An invitation was extended to Argentina in 1987 and reports from German sources in 1989 suggested that Australia had been approached and contracts signed, and that negotiations were underway with Brazil. Preliminary offers were made to Canada in 1987 to fly a cosmonaut to Mir, and formal invitations were passed between the two governments in 1989/1990, to which the Canadian National International guests and commerical agreements 217
Research Council responded favourably. No firm agreement was reached, but Canadian Chris Hadfield did fly to Mir as part of a NASA Shuttle crew (STS-74) in November 1995. China was offered the opportunity to fly a cosmonaut on a Russian space flight in August 1986, and this was re-emphasised in 1988. This led to renewed cooperation between Russia and China and a series of visits to TsPK in the mid- to late 1990s, as China was developing its own manned space programme (see below). Finland was offered the opportunity of a flight during an official presidential visit to Baykonur in October 1987, but although the possibility was discussed for over a decade, the large fee of US$ 10 million was rejected by the Finnish government. In 1988, it was reported that Hungary was interested in a second flight, this time to Mir. During the mid-1980s, an invitation to Indonesia gained some interest there, and during 1989, several discussions with officials from Iran pointed towards a joint flight, which Iran announced its intention to accept in March 1990, but which went no further. In October 1988, the newly formed Italian Space Agency (ASI) expressed a desire for a national space team of astronauts to crew future Shuttle missions and a possible flight to Mir was one option discussed at the time. But nothing would materialise for over a decade, until an Italian flew aboard a Soyuz to ISS. Malaysia was first approached to provide a national cosmonaut in 1987, but nothing developed beyond that until 2003, when discussions took place for a new selection on a Soyuz taxi flight to ISS. According to several reports in 1989, Spain was apparently approached for a flight to Mir, planned for December 1992. The mission never took place, although Spanish astronaut Pedro Duque, who was selected under the ESA astronaut programme, has completed cosmonaut training for a role as back-up to an ESA Mir mission and flew as part of a Soyuz Taxi crew to ISS in 2004. Sweden was offered a joint mission, reportedly in 1986, as was The Yemen and the former Yugoslavia sometime before 1987. 24 Sometimes these offers were mentioned by leading politicians on state visits, or as part of a scientific cooperation project. It would be appropriate to say that offering such opportunities to Third World countries was part of the Soviet/Russian foreign policy drive. West European cosmonauts For over 25 years, the Cosmonaut Training Centre has played host to a number of representatives from west European countries and space agencies, as a result of commercial and cooperative agreements, the demise of the Soviet Union and recognition of new states and borders. 25 Austria
In a purely commercial agreement, Austria was offered the opportunity to fly a cosmonaut to Mir in 1987. The agreement was negotiated between July and October 1988, resulting in the AUSTROMIR project. The Austrians would provide fourteen scientific experiments, which clearly raised the interest from the Soviets, who only charged US$ 7 million for the flight instead of the nominal US$ 15 million fee. The call for candidates was issued in February 1989, resulting in 198 applicants (19 women) and, for once, pilots were excluded, emphasising the scientific nature of the mission. After a series of tests, the group was reduced to about fifty applicants, who 218 International training
were then screened in a series of medical and psychological tests to produce thirty suitable applicants. On 10 July 1989, seven finalists were chosen (two women ± Elke Greidel and Gertraud Vieh, and five men ± Manfred Eitler, Peter Friedrich, Lt- Colonel Robert Haas, Clemens Lothaller and Franz ViehboÈck). On 6 October 1989, ViehboÈck and Lothaller were selected for cosmonaut training, which they began on 8 January 1990. During their training, the two Austrians became friends with the Japanese and British pairings who were at TsPK at the same time. ViehboÈck was named to the prime crew of Soyuz TM 13 (with Lothaller as back-up), and was launched on 2 October 1991 for a standard one-week visiting mission to the Mir space complex. The training programme the Austrians and other `commercial' programmes followed mirrored that of the British astronauts (see page 231). Bulgaria
The first flight of a Bulgarian cosmonaut in April 1979 was the aborted docking attempt with Salyut 6 due to a faulty engine system on the Soyuz 33 spacecraft. As a result of that shortened mission, Bulgaria was offered the chance of a second Download 3.5 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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