Русский Ўзбекча

Product and Resource Markets
According to the official data, the production of the main types of agricultural products (except cotton) increases year by year. This is especially true for horticultural products, along with the production of which, its processing and export are growing. There is a significant increase in the production of livestock products.[7]
A significant increase in wheat production after 1992 is due to both the expansion of cultivation areas and the significant increase in the yield of this crop. Thus, the yield increase almost quadrupled – from 12.8 to 48.6 c/ha between 1991 and 2014 (Ed. note c-centner, 1 centner = 100kg). However, the yield and the volume of wheat production appear to be significantly overestimated, which is associated with the methods of statistical recording.[8]
Despite a significant increase in the production and export of agricultural products, the existing system of state orders and the practice of export regulation do not allow the formation of free markets for agricultural products.
As the state is a monopolist, solely buying this type of raw material, there is no free cotton market. Further, cotton is distributed for export and domestic consumers. Currently, “agro-industrial clusters” are being introduced as an experiment, where farmers will have to sell cotton not to the state, but directly to processing enterprises within the cluster. But such a model does not mean the emergence of the cotton market, but creates a new form of farmers’ “bondage” not from the state, but from the cotton processors now.
The state for a long time tried (and probably still will try in 2019) to centrally regulate the export of horticultural products. In past years, the main instruments of such regulation were:
– allocation of quotas for export of products (by the monthly decisions of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan),
– mandatory export through the state trading companies,
– determination of the minimum export prices (below which products were prohibited to sell),
– the requirement of 100% prepayment,
– penalties for late receipt of foreign currency earnings (in cases where it was possible to fulfill the requirement of 100% prepayment) and etc.
The most of the administrative barriers to the export of horticultural products were eliminated during 2017-2018. But it is not yet clear how the new mechanism will work in 2019, to what extent it will be free from administrative interference.
While the article was being prepared for publication, a draft government decree was issued on monitoring the contract value of exporting horticultural and textile products. The purport of a document is not to allow exporters to sell their products cheaper than the marginal prices which will be set by the Ministry of Investment and Foreign Trade.[9] It confirms the fears that officials will try again to take control over the export of horticultural products.
The system of administrative regulation of the industry extends to resource markets. Agricultural machinery, fuel and lubricants, fertilizers, feed, seeds, biological and chemical plant protection products, etc., are supplied to farmers by the state-owned monopolists. Prices for some resources are often subsidized. The amount of resources that can be purchased at lower (subsidized) prices is limited and is determined by the size of cultivation area and expected yield of ​​cotton and wheat.
Farmers can get fuel, fertilizers and seeds only at stations opened by state-owned companies in the area of ​​their location. There is no competition between resource providers, which leads to their low quality. For the cultivation of products that are not subject to government orders, manufacturers must acquire material resources on their own, at the prices prevailing in the market.
In addition, state-owned companies provide agricultural machinery services (plowing with a tractor, harvesting by a combine, transporting crops, etc.), a network of machine-tractor parks is deployed. Finally, the state practices advanced production: farmers often purchase resources in advance against future income from the sale of cotton and wheat. At the same time, the farmer cannot freely dispose of the received advance payment depending on the specific situation or local conditions. In fact, he receives not money, but resources paid for at state prices, which limit his financial independence.
Thus, farmers executing a state order for cotton and wheat can neither control the prices of their products nor the prices of resources.
The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands suitable for raising domesticated species. For plants, this usually requires some form of irrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming; pastoral herding on rangeland is still the most common means of raising livestock. In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture (e.g. permaculture or organic agriculture).
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects.^[4] Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal cruelty and the health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production.^[5]
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. In the 21st century, plants have been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics,^[6] and pharmaceuticals.^[7] Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the ornamental products. Regarding food production, the World Bank targets agricultural food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that is fostering an important and growing debate.^[8]
In 2007, one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture. The services sector has overtaken agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide.^[9] Despite the size of its workforce, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products).
Clark's Sector Model (1950): The percent of the human population working in primary sector activities such as agriculture has decreased over time.
Agriculture has played a key role in the development of human civilization. Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. The type of agriculture they developed was typically subsistence agriculture in which farmers raised most of their crops for consumption on farm, and there was only a small portion left over for the payment of taxes, dues, or trade. In subsistence agriculture cropping decisions are made with an eye to what the family needs for food, and to make clothing, and not the world marketplace. Development of agricultural techniques has steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these techniques during a time period is often called an agricultural revolution. A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies, and the development of world markets. This also led to technological improvements in agricultural techniques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate which made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary.
Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn (maize) were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food.^[12]
Many governments have subsidized agriculture to ensure an adequate food supply. These agricultural subsidies are often linked to the production of certain commodities such as wheat, corn (maize), rice, soybeans, and milk. These subsidies, especially when instituted by developed countries have been noted as protectionist, inefficient, and environmentally damaging.^[13]
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, mechanization, water contamination, and farm subsidies. Proponents of organic farming such as Sir Albert Howard argued in the early 20th century that the overuse of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers damages the long-term fertility of the soil. While this feeling lay dormant for decades, as environmental awareness has increased in the 21st century there has been a movement towards sustainable agriculture by some farmers, consumers, and policymakers.
In recent years there has been a backlash against perceived external environmental effects of mainstream agriculture, particularly regarding water pollution,^[14] resulting in the organic movement. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,^[15] also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management and selective breeding. Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food.
In late 2007, several factors pushed up the price of grains consumed by humans as well as used to feed poultry and dairy cows and other cattle, causing higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over the year.^[16][17] Food riots took place in several countries across the world.^[18][19][20] Contributing factors included drought in Australia and elsewhere, increasing demand for grain-fed animal products from the growing middle classes of countries such as China and India, diversion of foodgrain to biofuel production and trade restrictions imposed by several countries.
An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concern.^[21][22][23] Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.^[24] In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.^[25]
A Sumerian harvester's sickle made from baked clay (ca. 3000 BC).
Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed long ago, but have made great strides in the past century. The history of agriculture has played a major role in human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socio-economic change. Division of labor in agricultural societies made commonplace specializations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures. So, too, are arts such as epic literature and monumental architecture, as well as codified legal systems. When farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in their society were freed to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Historians and anthropologists have long argued that the development of agriculture made civilization possible. The total world population probably never exceeded 15 million inhabitants before the invention of agriculture.^[26]