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Waterlogged area not irrigated (ha)
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Waterlogged area not irrigated (ha) Part of the land in non-irrigated cultivated areas that is waterlogged. Waterlogging is the state of land in which the water table is located at or near the surface resulting in a decline of crop yields. 21 Glossary of terms Wetlands and inland valley bottoms Wetlands and inland valley bottoms (IVB) that have not been equipped with water control structures but are used for cropping. Often found in Africa, wetlands and IVB will have limited (mostly traditional) arrangements to regulate water and control drainage. SECTION II Regional analysis EXPLANATORY NOTES In this section, the water resources and irrigation situation in the six Central Asia countries Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan is analyzed and compared. The analysis presents distinguishing features arising from the new data collected on a national scale for issues addressed in the six country profiles in Section III. The focus is on land use and population, water resources and use, irrigation and drainage, trends in water withdrawal and irrigation development, the legislative and institutional framework for water management, environment and health, and prospects for agricultural water management as perceived by the countries. A hyphen (-) in the regional tables indicates that no or not sufficient information is available. 25 Geography, climate and population The Central Asia region in this survey is composed of six countries. They are Afghanistan and the five Central Asia countries that were part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) before their independence in 1991: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. In the previous survey Irrigation in the countries of the Former Soviet Union in figures: AQUASTAT Survey – 1997 (FAO, 1997b) the five Central Asia countries were grouped into the Central Asia subregion. The present survey includes Afghanistan in the Central Asia region because of the important shared water resources in the Amu Darya and the Tedzhen-Murghab basins. The total area of Central Asia is 4.66 million km 2 , or 3 percent of the world’s emerged landmass (Table 1 and Table 25). Out of the six countries in the region, Kazakhstan represents 59 percent, and together Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan occupy 34 percent of the region’s total area. The two smallest countries – Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan – together comprise barely 7 percent of the total area (Figure 2). The region is bordered to the north by the Russian Federation, to the east by China, to the south by Pakistan and to the west by the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the Russian Federation. In 2009, the cultivated area was an estimated 40 million ha, which is 9 percent of the total area (Table 1). In Afghanistan 12 percent of the total area of the country is cultivated, falling to just over 4 percent in Turkmenistan. Geologically the region is extremely varied. There are the Tien Shan and Pamir mountain ranges in the east. In Tajikistan, the highest mountain, Communism Peak, rises to 7 495 m above sea level (asl) in the northern Pamir range. Much of the mountainous region is permanently covered with ice and snow and there are many glaciers. Mountain ranges in the south include the earthquake prone Kopetdag range. In the northeast lies the second largest crater-lake in the world, the Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan. The main agricultural area, the Fergana valley, lies on the border between Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. In the southwest lies the Kara Kum or Black Sand desert, one of the largest sand deserts in the world, covering over 80 percent of Turkmenistan. Another large desert, the Kyzyl-Kum or Red Sand desert, extends over Kazakhstan and the north of Uzbekistan. The west of the region is dominated by the depression of the Caspian Sea. The Aral Sea, in the central TABLE 1 Land use Total area Cultivated area Country Area in % of total area Area In % of country area per inhabitant per person economically active in agriculture ha % ha % ha/inhab ha/ec.act.pop. Afghanistan 65 223 000 14 7 910 000 12 0.2 1.3 Kazakhstan 272 490 000 59 23 480 000 9 1.4 19.9 Kyrgyzstan 19 995 000 4 1 351 000 7 0.3 2.7 Tajikistan 14 255 000 3 875 000 6 0.1 1.1 Turkmenistan 48 810 000 10 1 910 000 4 0.4 2.7 Uzbekistan 44 740 000 10 4 651 000 10 0.2 1.7 Central Asia 465 513 000 100 40 177 000 9 0.4 3.3 26 Irrigation in Central Asia in figures - AQUASTAT Survey - 2012 western part, lies on the border between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. This area is known as one of the world’s most serious environmental disasters. Central Asia is landlocked within the Eurasian continent, which determines its continental climate. Large daily and seasonal temperature differences are characteristic of the region, with high solar radiation and relatively low humidity. Various types of terrain and altitude range from 0 to 7 500 m asl, lead to diversified microclimates. Although this area is often struck by humid winds, the mountains trap most of the moisture, and little rain falls in the Aral Sea basin (CAWaterInfo, 2011). The average temperatures range from 0–4 ºC in January to 28–32 ºC in July. Summers in some areas, such as Kara Kum in Turkmenistan, can be as hot as 52 ºC and winters can be as cold as minus 16 ºC, with an absolute of minus 38 ºC, making for a sharply contrasting overall climate, (Murray-Rust et al., 2003). Average annual precipitation is an estimated 273 mm, varying, from 161 mm in Turkmenistan to 691 mm in Tajikistan; from less than 70 mm on the plains and deserts to 2 400 mm in the mountains of central Tajikistan (Figure 3). Annual precipitation in the lowlands and valleys is between 80 and 200 mm, concentrated in winter and spring, while in the foothills precipitation ranges between 300 and 400 mm, and on the southern and southwestern sides of the mountain ranges it is between 600 and 800 mm (CAWaterInfo, 2011). Because summer air humidity differs dramatically between the ancient oases and newly irrigated areas, 50–60 percent and 20–30 percent respectively. Water demands in former desert areas that are now being irrigated, are significantly greater than for the oases. Other factors that particularly affect agricultural production are unstable spring temperatures and precipitation. Late frosts may occur at the beginning of May and hail may fall in June, which sometimes destroys emerging cotton plants and vegetables over large areas (CAWaterInfo, 2011). In 2011, the total population was an estimated 94 million inhabitants, representing 1.3 percent of the world’s population (Table 2 and Table 25). Afghanistan and Uzbekistan are the most, and second most, populous countries in the region respectively, together they account for about 64 percent of the population in Central Asia. Average population density is 20 inhabitants/km 2 , compared to 52 inhabitants/km 2 for the world as a whole and 178 inhabitants/km 2 for Southern and Eastern Asia, ranging from six inhabitants/km 2 in Kazakhstan to 61 inhabitants/km 2 in Uzbekistan (Figure 4). The annual demographic growth rate was an estimated 1.8 percent for the period 2010–2011, compared to 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 AfghanistanKazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan In % of Central Asia FI G U R E 2 Distribution of areas and population Area Population 1.1 percent globally. During the period 2001–2011, annual population growth ranged from 0.8 percent in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan to 3.2 percent in Afghanistan, with a regional average annual growth of 1.8 percent. The population of Central Asia is predominantly rural: about 65 percent, compared to 49 percent for the world as a whole (Table 2 and Table 25). The rural population varies from more than 77 percent in Afghanistan and 74 percent in Tajikistan to 41 percent in Kazakhstan. The percentage of the economically active population engaged 27 Geography, climate and population FIGURE 3 A verage annual pr ecipitation 28 Irrigation in Central Asia in figures - AQUASTAT Survey - 2012 TABLE 2 Population characteristics (2011) Country Population Economically active population Economically active population in agricultur e Gr oss Domestic Pr oduct (2010) Human Development Index (2011) Total in % of region % rural Population density Total in % of total population Total in % of economically active population Total V alue added by agricultur e GDP per inhabitant inhabitants % % inhabitants per km 2 inhabitants % inhabitants % Curr ent million US$ % Curr ent US$/ inhabitant (Min 0, Max 1) Afghanistan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan 32 358 000 34 77 50 16 207 000 17 41 6 5 393 000 6 65 27 6 977 000 8 74 49 5 105 000 5 50 10 27 760 000 30 64 62 10 474 000 32 6 217 000 59 8 682 000 54 1 181 000 14 2 491 000 46 507 000 20 2 901 000 42 778 000 27 2 431 000 48 714 000 29 12 916 000 47 2 695 000 21 17 243 30 533 149 059 5 9 197 4 616 21 856 5 640 21 808 20 001 12 3 918 38 982 20 1 404 0.398 0.745 0.615 0.607 0.686 0.641 Central Asia 93 800 000 100 65 20 39 895 000 43 12 092 000 30 235 541 10 2 511 - 29 Geography, climate and population FIGURE 4 Population density 30 Irrigation in Central Asia in figures - AQUASTAT Survey - 2012 in agriculture, at about 30 percent, is low compared to 39 percent for the world. This percentage varies from 59 percent in Afghanistan to 14 percent in Kazakhstan. In 2010, around 74 percent of the total population of Central Asia, 94 percent of the urban and 64 percent of the rural had access to improved drinking water sources (Table 3). TABLE 3 Access to improved water sources (Source: JMP, 2011) Country Access to improved water sources in 2010 (% of population) National Urban Rural Afghanistan 50 78 42 Kazakhstan 95 99 90 Kyrgyzstan 90 99 85 Tajikistan 64 92 54 Turkmenistan 84 97 72 Uzbekistan 87 98 81 Central Asia 74 94 64 31 Economy, agriculture and food security Since the second half of the 1990s, Central Asia has emerged as one of the world’s fastest growing regions showing notable development potential. This is significant for a region comprised largely of small landlocked economies with no access to the sea for trade. Among the advantages of the region are its high-priced commodities (oil, gas, cotton and gold), reasonable infrastructure and human capital, and its strategic location between Asia and Europe. Furthermore, several Central Asian countries have embarked on market-oriented economic reforms to boost economic performance and private sector competitiveness (Dowling and Wignaraja, 2006). The sum of national Gross Domestic Products (GDPs) in 2010 amounted to US$235 541 million, which is 0.4 percent of world GDP. This corresponds to a GDP of about US$2 556/inhabitant, ranging from US$549/inhabitant in Afghanistan to US$9 301/inhabitant in Kazakhstan. Based on the Human Development Index (HDI) – where 1 = highest and 0 = lowest – in 2011 out of a total of 187 countries Kazakhstan holds the highest place among the Central Asia countries at 68 (0.745), Turkmenistan follows at 102 (0.686), Uzbekistan 115 (0.641), Kyrgyzstan 126 (0.615), Tajikistan 127 (0.607) and Afghanistan 172 (0.398) (Table 2). In 2010, the added value of the primary sector (agriculture) contributed 10.4 percent to the GDP of the Central Asia region. This ranged from 5 percent in Kazakhstan to 30 percent in Afghanistan. An average of around 30 percent of the economically active population is engaged in the farming sector, ranging from 14 percent in Kazakhstan to 60 percent in Afghanistan (Table 2). The cultivated area per person economically active in agriculture varies from a low 1.1, 1.3 and 1.7 ha/person in Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan respectively, 2.7 ha/person in Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan to almost 20 ha/person in Kazakhstan, giving an average for the region of 3.3 ha/person (Table 1). Central Asia is rich in natural resources. Water is the most precious resource and its use is the most conflict-prone. In Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, large quantities of water are stored in the mountain glaciers. Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have huge oil and gas deposits. At the same time, almost half the population in these countries lives in poverty and lacks access to sufficient natural resources to sustain livelihoods, while the countries’ wealth is unevenly distributed (Perelet, 2007). Pre-independence water allocation and irrigation system infrastructure were well maintained and operated with massive funding from the central government of the Former Soviet Union. Since independence, the situation has changed dramatically in the Central Asia countries politically, institutionally and technically. Political transition from a planned to a market economy has introduced ‘new’ concepts such as land tenure, water rights and different kinds of ownership. The institutional changes are described as a transition from former state collective farms – kholkhoz and sovkhoz – to smaller private farms. Many farmers, however, do not have the capacity or the resources to afford the energy required for pumping water and to irrigate land on an individual basis (Rakhmatullaev et al., 2009). Cereals (mainly wheat), cotton, fodder and pastures are the most important irrigated crops in the region. 33 Water resources RENEWAbLE WATER RESoURCES (PRIMARy FRESHWATER) This survey distinguishes between internal renewable water resources (IRWR) and total renewable water resources (TRWR). IRWR is that part of a country’s water resources generated by endogenous precipitation (produced in the country). Calculation of IRWR involves adding surface water flow and groundwater recharge and subtracting the overlap. TRWR is calculated by adding IRWR and external flow. This is a measure of the maximum theoretical amount of water available to a country without considering its technical, economic or environmental nature. The methodology used in the survey also differentiates between natural and actual external flow: natural flow is the average annual amount of water that would flow at a given point in a river without any human influence, while actual flow takes into account volumes of water reserved by treaties or agreements. Particular attention should be given to specific issues related to the calculation of water resources in Central Asian countries. In arid areas, the complex interrelation between surface water and groundwater makes it difficult to assess the overlap. In cases of extreme complexity, groundwater resources in one country may be infiltration from runoff generated in an upstream country, making it difficult to distinguish between internal and external water resources. Often, exchanges between countries are further complicated because rivers cross the same border several times. Part of the incoming water flow may originate in the same country that the river enters, making it necessary to calculate a ‘net’ inflow to avoid double counting of the resources. Generally, because of the significant water withdrawals over many years, assessment of natural surface water runoff in these areas is more difficult because of the absence of a chronological series of natural flow measurements. Indeed, most of the available flow data relate to the measurement of actual runoff rather than natural flow. In addition, most figures quoted in reports correspond to the agreements covering shared water resources. The volume of annual precipitation in Central Asia is an estimated 1 270 km 3 . This volume is equal to a regional average depth of 273 mm/year, compared to a global average of 812 mm/ year, but with significant disparities between and within countries. Average annual precipitation varies from less than 70 mm in the plains and deserts to more than 2 400 mm in the mountains of Central Tajikistan (Figure 3). At country-level, the driest country is Turkmenistan with 161 mm/year on average, and the wettest is Tajikistan with 691 mm/year (Table 4). Long-term average annual IRWR in Central Asia account for 242 km 3 , which represent 0.6 percent of the world’s total (Table 4 and Table 25). In absolute terms Kazakhstan accounts for the largest amount of IRWR, 64 km 3 /year or 27 percent of the region’s water resources. This refers to 59 percent of the region’s total area, thus giving a depth of only 24 mm. Tajikistan follows with 63 km 3 , or 26 percent of the region’s water resources, which contrary to Kazakhstan is an important value, taking into account that the country represents only 3 percent of the total area of the region, resulting in the greatest depth of 445 mm. Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan account for 49 km 3 and 47 km 3 respectively, each represent 20 percent of water resources in the region. Kyrgyzstan accounts for only 4 percent of the 34 AfghanistanKazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Irrigation in Central Asia in figures - AQUASTAT Survey - 2012 TABLE 4 Long-term average annual renewable water resources Country Average annual precipitation Annual renewable water resources Internal (IRWR) Total actual, taking into consideration agreements (TARWR) Dependency ratio depth volume volume depth per inhab (2011) volume per inhab (2011) mm km 3 km 3 mm m 3 /inhab km 3 m 3 /inhab Download 372.82 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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