Second Language Learning and Language Teaching

L2 and universal processes of acquisition
As well as transfer, L2 learners make use of universal processes common to all
learners. Some problems are shared by L2 learners because of the similar processes
of language processing and acquisition engraved on their minds.
For example, the simplification of consonant clusters happens almost regardless
of L1. The earlier example of Germans having trouble with English voicing may be
due not to transfer from German, but to a universal preference for ‘devoicing’ of
final consonants. Similarly, the use of CV syllables by many L2 learners could
reflect a universal tendency rather than transfer from specific first languages.
While epenthesis often depends on the structure of the first language, it neverthe-
less appears to be available to all L2 learners.
A number of models have been put forward to explain L2 phonological acquisi-
tion in a second language. The ontogeny phylogeny model of language acquisi-
tion put forward by Roy Major (2002) claims that the early stages of L2 learning
are characterized by interference from the second language. Then the learner
starts to rely on universal processes common to all learners. The L2 elements
themselves increase over time until finally the learner possesses the L2 forms. This
is shown in the stages captured in Figure 4.1.
General ideas about phonology learning 77
L1
L2
U
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Figure 4.1 The ontogeny phylogeny model (OPM) (Major, 2002)
Major (2002) takes the example of English speakers learning the Spanish trilled
[
r]. They start with the English sound, written phonetically as [ɹ] (stage 1). In the
next stages, though the Spanish [
r] starts to appear, they also use an uvular trilled
[
r] based on their universal processes. Spanish [r] continues to increase until it
reaches 100 per cent, while [
ɹ] and [r] decrease until they reach zero in stage 5.
Learning pronunciation then depends on three different components – L1 transfer,
universal processes and L2. The relationship between these varies according to the
learner’s stage.

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