Semntic analyses of phraseological units Abstract

Key words

Phraseology, set-expression, word-combination, collocations, idioms, connotations.

There is no agreement among the scholars in regards to terming set-expressions with transferred meaning. Although most scholars use the term phraseological units or phraseologisms (Chernyisheva, 1964; Kunin, 1963; Vinogradov, 1947; Ginzburg, 1979), others name them differently. Irina Arnold (1973) speaks of set-expressions; Zgusta (1971), set combinations; and Mel’čuk (1988), phrasemes, or set phrases. Cowie and Howarth, who were influenced by Russian models, name them word-combinations. Palmer uses the term an ‘idiom.’

Thus, there is no agreement on the definition of a phraseological unit, either. Pawley² explains that Phraseology can be “loosely defined as the study of conventional phrases, where a phrase means a multi-word expression up to sentence level”. A.V. Kunin defines it as “a stable combination of words with complete or partial transferred meaning”. Ginzburg³ speaks of “non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units”. Rosemarie Gläser⁴ defines a phraseological unit as a “lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text” . It should be noted that in early 1930s, H. E. Palmer⁵ set up a project to collect collocations-- words, which “have more specific meanings”. He states that idioms involve collocation of a special kind, and their meanings are not “related to the meaning of the individual words”, e.g., kick the bucket. He concludes that the meaning of idioms “cannot be predicted from the meanings of the words themselves”. David Crystal⁶ uses the term ‘idiom,’ or ‘idiomatic expression,’ and notes that its meaning “cannot be deduced by examining the meanings of the constituent lexemes”. Rosalia Ginzburg⁷ sums up that the term ‘idioms’ generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity, or lack of motivation. This term is habitually used by English and American linguists, and it is very often treated as synonymous with the term phraseological unit”. After analyzing the proposed definitions, we believe Kunin’s definition of a phraseological unit, as a stable combination of words with partially and fully figurative meaning, is more effective because the main feature of a phraseological unit is its transferred meaning, and it is characterized by the stability of its components.

Phraseological units have many peculiarities of their own. They are considered anomalies of language by some. Their meanings cannot be predicted from the meaning of their constituents, and they have either partially or fully transferred meanings. The origin of PU is different. Some are related to memorable events; some are political; still others are religious. Kunin identifies native and borrowed phraseological units. The origin of the majority of phraseological units is unknown, but they may reflect traditions, memorable events, customs, and beliefs of English-speaking people. They have come from the beggars’ hovels and from courts of kings. Among native phraseological units, I find the following:

• Phraseological units according to memorable events: to set the Thames on fire seems to refer to the Great Fire of London.

• Phraseological units coming from the sea or maritime trade: to go by the board means to be cast aside; to be ruined or irretrievable lost. A ‘board’ is the side of the ship, and everything which goes by the board falls over the side and is lost. This phraseological unit applies to ideas, projects, and values which are discarded for any reason. To nail one’s colours to the mast (to be resolute, unwavering in one’s opinions and principles; to declare one’s allegiance publicly) refers to battleships, which always fly their colors—their national ensign. If the flag was taken down, that meant “surrender”; however, if a flag was literally nailed to the mast, it showed the crew’s desire to fight on. In the phrase to sail under false colors, “colors” are the ship’s national flag which every vessel was obligated to fly. However, pirates would hoist the ensign of a friendly nation to approach closer, without exciting suspicion, and then attack. To show oneself in one’s true colors (to make one’s true opinion known, to show one’s true self) may refer to the same situation when the pirates would unfurl their own flag, the skull and the crossbones, revealing their true identity.

• Phraseological units referring to the battlefield or arts of warfare: to beat a (hasty) retreat (to leave, unusually in a hurry; to abandon an undertaking). Drums were a part of the war machine, and soldiers took their orders from their beats. Retreat was one of orders, which would sound every evening to signal soldiers to get behind the lines when darkness fell, and this was the signal for the guards to present themselves for duty. To bite the bullet means to show courage in facing a difficult or unpleasant situation. On the battlefields of the last century, the wounded men were encouraged to bite on a bullet to help them forget the pain in the absence of pain-killers and anesthetics.

• Biblical phraseological units: the phrase to turn the other cheek originated from the Bible, meaning ‘to ignore abuse or insult; to have an attitude of patience and forgiveness.’ In Matthew 5:39 Jesus exhorts his followers with these words: “But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also” (p.49. The phrase “to kill the fatted calf” in the story of the prodigal son is used in the direct meaning. Later, to kill the fatted calf acquired a new meaning; ‘to prepare an elaborate banquet (in someone’s honor); to provide plenty of the best food, drink, or other comfort.’ Some phraseological units originated from a plot recorded in the Bible. A doubting Thomas originated when one of Christ’s apostles, Thomas by name, expressed disbelief when he was confronted by the resurrected Jesus Christ after the crucifixion. Some phraseological units have been created by the use of puns. The phraseological unit, the land of Nod, appeared as the result of the humorous play on words based on the same sounding of two English word ‘nod’ meaning sleepiness and ‘Nod’ the name of the Biblical land Nod, where Cain was banished after he had murdered his brother Abel. The phraseologism was created by J. Swift, “Go into the land of Nod,” meaning ‘to enter a polite conversation.’

• Occupational phraseological units: Let the cat out of the bag (to reveal a secret or surprise by accident) originated from trade. Unscrupulous vendors in medieval markets displayed their sample products openly for everyone to see; however, when a customer decided to buy something, he or she was given already a packed and tied bag. If a pig was shown for a sale, the bag might contain a cat, so if a wary customer decided to check the bag, he or she might let the cat out of the bag, therefore revealing the deception.

• Phraseological units illustrating sports and games: to pass the buck (to pass the responsibility on to someone else or to pass the blame to someone else) is a poker term which refers to the marker (buck) that was placed in front of a player to show that it was his or her turn to deal (p. 41). In gambling, the chips are down means ‘to be close to failure or defeat; to be at the final, critical moment; to have had one’s last chance’ when all the bets have been placed, but the outcome is not known yet.

• Phraseological units referring to everyday life: to be taken to the cleaners means ‘to lose all one’s money, to be ruined.’ A person is stripped clean of everything of value. I could sleep on a clothes line means ‘I am so tired that I can sleep anywhere.’ It refers to poverty of the nineteenth century when poor people would buy for two pence a night’s lodging on the two-penny rope. These people could sit on a bench and put their bodies on the rope stretched in front of them. In the morning the landlord would cut the rope to wake his or her guests (p.55). To have a finger in the (every) pie means ‘to have a role in something; to be involved in something.’ There is an implication of meddling in other people’s business (p.86).

• Phraseological units reflecting English traditions and customs: to ride a high horse and on one’s high horse. In the fourteenth century John Wyclif recorded that in a royal pageant, persons of high ranks were mounted on ‘high’ horses. The tradition died; however, the phrase remained meaning the person considered himself or herself very important and superior to others. It relates to an arrogant person. The Blue Ribbon, the highest distinction, the pick of the bunch, is the most desired Order of Knighthood in Britain. It is used in conjunction with something outstanding. To carry coals to Newcastle means expressing the futility of taking something to a place where it already exists in great quantity. Put somebody in the cart means ‘to put somebody in reduced circumstances, in a difficult position in which one is likely to be scolded; to put in trouble.’ A cart is a wagon which carried criminals to the place of execution.

• Phraseological units connected with beliefs: to have an itching palm (or palms) or to have an itchy palm means ‘to have a great desire for money and wealth’ or ‘to be in need of a tip. This phraseological unit refers to an old belief that an itching palm indicated that a person is about to receive money.

To sum up, phraseological units are independent and unseparable word groups.