Task – ‘Open-source’ task. Theory – 10 point task – a ‘Open-source’ task. Find/identify main postulates of given great thinker/scholar [from Martin Griffiths

Task – 4. Independent task. GLOSSARY [5 words] – 10 points
PROVIDE A DEFINITION TO/EXPLANATION OF 5 TERMS/KEYWORDS AND 'GENERALIZE' YOUR ANSWER WITH RELEVANT DATA/EXAMPLES.

1. ACTOR 2. AGENT STRUCTURE 3. ANARCHY 4. AUTHORITY 5. AUTONOMY

1. 
   Actor: In the field of International Relations, an actor refers to an individual, group, or state that participates in the international system and has the ability to influence or affect international events. Actors can range from government leaders to international organizations to non-state actors such as NGOs, corporations, and individuals.
   
2. 
   Agent Structure: The term "Agent Structure" refers to the relationships and interactions between actors in the international system. This structure includes the distribution of power, influence, and resources among actors, as well as the norms, rules, and institutions that govern their interactions. The agent structure of the international system is constantly evolving and can have a significant impact on international relations.
   
3. 
   Anarchy: In the field of International Relations, "anarchy" refers to the absence of a centralized, global government and the lack of a recognized authority to enforce laws and regulations on a global scale. This state of affairs has traditionally been seen as one of the defining characteristics of the international system, and has led to the development of various theories and approaches to understanding and managing international relations in the absence of a world government.
   
4. 
   Authority: Authority refers to the power to make decisions and enforce rules and regulations. In the international system, authority can be exercised by states, international organizations, or other actors. The legitimacy and effectiveness of authority in the international system is shaped by a complex interplay of factors, including the distribution of power among actors, the presence or absence of recognized international norms and institutions, and the ability of actors to enforce their decisions.
   
5. 
   Autonomy: Autonomy refers to the independence and freedom of an actor to make decisions and take actions without the influence or interference of other actors. In the context of international relations, autonomy is a key concept that is used to describe the independence and sovereignty of states and other actors in the international system. States, for example, are typically seen as possessing a high degree of autonomy, with the ability to make decisions regarding their own foreign and security policies without interference from other states or international organizations.
   

6. ALLIANCE 7. APPEASEMENT 8. ARAB SPRING 9. ARMS CONTROL 10. ARMS TRADE

6. 
   Alliance: An alliance is a formal agreement between two or more states or other actors to cooperate on specific issues or in general. Alliances can take many forms, ranging from military alliances, such as NATO, to economic and political alliances, such as the European Union. The main purpose of an alliance is to increase the power and security of the participating actors by pooling resources, sharing information, and coordinating actions.
   
7. 
   Appeasement: Appeasement refers to a foreign policy approach that seeks to avoid conflict by making concessions or offering incentives to an aggressive or hostile state or actor. This approach was particularly prevalent in the lead up to World War II, when some Western powers sought to avoid conflict with Nazi Germany by making concessions on territorial and other disputes. While appeasement is sometimes seen as a way to maintain peace and stability, it is also criticized for emboldening the aggressive state or actor and increasing the risk of conflict.
   
8. 
   Arab Spring: The Arab Spring refers to a series of pro-democracy protests, uprisings, and civil wars that took place in the Arab world in 2010-2012. The protests were sparked by a range of factors, including high unemployment, political repression, and lack of economic opportunities, and resulted in the removal of several long-serving authoritarian leaders in the region. While the Arab Spring has been seen as a positive development for democracy and human rights in the region, it has also resulted in increased instability, conflict, and sectarian violence in some countries.
   
9. 
   Arms Control: Arms Control refers to the regulation of the production, possession, and use of weapons, including conventional weapons, weapons of mass destruction, and other military technology. Arms control is an important aspect of international relations, as it can help to prevent or limit the escalation of conflict, promote stability and security, and reduce the risk of accidental or intentional use of weapons. Arms control agreements can take many forms, including bilateral and multilateral treaties, agreements on the export and transfer of weapons, and confidence-building measures between states.
   
10. 
    Arms Trade: The Arms Trade refers to the international trade in weapons, military equipment, and related technologies. The arms trade is a significant part of the global economy, with many states and companies participating in the production and sale of weapons and military technology. While the arms trade can provide economic benefits, such as job creation and technological advancement, it is also controversial, as it can contribute to instability, conflict, and human suffering, especially in regions where there is conflict or insecurity. Regulating the arms trade is therefore an important aspect of international relations, with various international treaties and agreements aimed at controlling the production, transfer, and use of weapons.
    

11. BALANCE OF POWER 12. BIPOLAR 13. BOUNDARY 14. BUFFER STATE 15. BRETTON WOODS

11. 
    Balance of Power: The balance of power refers to the distribution of power among states or other actors in the international system. A balance of power is seen as a stabilizing factor in international relations, as it helps to prevent any one state or actor from dominating the international system. The concept of balance of power has been used to describe a variety of different systems of power distribution, including bipolar systems (where power is held by two dominant states), multipolar systems (where power is distributed among several states or actors), and unipolar systems (where power is concentrated in the hands of one dominant state).
    
12. 
    Bipolar: Bipolar refers to a system of international relations in which power is held by two dominant states. The best known example of a bipolar system is the Cold War, which was characterized by a balance of power between the United States and the Soviet Union. Bipolar systems are often seen as being more stable than multipolar systems, as the distribution of power is more limited and the dominant actors have a clear understanding of each other's strengths and weaknesses.
    
13. 
    Boundary: A boundary is a line or area that separates two distinct territories, such as two countries or regions. In the context of international relations, boundaries can be a source of conflict, as disputes may arise over the precise location of a boundary, the rights of people living near or across a boundary, or the allocation of resources, such as water or minerals, that straddle a boundary. The establishment and delimitation of boundaries is therefore an important aspect of international relations, with various international treaties and agreements aimed at resolving boundary disputes and ensuring stability and security in the region.
    
14. 
    Buffer State: A buffer state is a neutral state located between two or more more powerful or potentially hostile states, with the purpose of separating and reducing the risk of conflict between them. Buffer states are often small or weak states that are seen as having little or no ability to influence the international system or shape their own foreign policies. The role of buffer states can be important in maintaining stability and security in regions where there is a risk of conflict, as they can act as a barrier between opposing actors and prevent the spread of conflict.
    
15. 
    Bretton Woods: The Bretton Woods system was a set of international economic agreements signed in 1944 that established the rules and institutions for international monetary cooperation and exchange rate management. The Bretton Woods system was created in the aftermath of World War II, with the aim of establishing a stable international monetary system and promoting economic growth and development. The system was based on the principles of fixed exchange rates, the convertibility of currencies, and the ability of states to manipulate their exchange rates in response to changes in the balance of payments. The Bretton Woods system was a cornerstone of the post-World War II international economic system and played an important role in shaping the global economy until the system broke down in the 1970s and was replaced by a more flexible system of floating exchange rates.
    

16. BUSH DOCTRINE 17. BRIAND-KELLOGG PACT 18. CAPABILITY 19. CIVIL WAR 20. CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS

16. 
    Bush Doctrine: The Bush Doctrine refers to the foreign policy strategies and principles articulated by President George W. Bush in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The Bush Doctrine included a commitment to pre-emptive military action against perceived threats to the security of the United States, as well as a more assertive role for the United States in promoting democracy and human rights around the world. The Bush Doctrine was a significant departure from previous U.S. foreign policy, and was criticized by some as being unilateralist and contributing to a decline in U.S. global leadership and influence.
    
17. 
    Briand-Kellogg Pact: The Briand-Kellogg Pact was a treaty signed in 1928 that renounced war as an instrument of national policy and pledged to resolve disputes peacefully. The pact was named after its main architects, French foreign minister Aristide Briand and U.S. Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg, and was one of the first international agreements aimed at preventing war and promoting peace through international cooperation and diplomacy. Although the Briand-Kellogg Pact did not succeed in preventing the outbreak of World War II, it was seen as an important step in the development of modern international relations and is considered a precursor to the United Nations Charter and other international agreements aimed at promoting peace and security.
    
18. 
    Capability: In the context of international relations, capability refers to a state's or actor's ability to influence the international system or achieve its goals and objectives. Capabilities can include economic, military, technological, diplomatic, and cultural resources, as well as a state's capacity to mobilize these resources and direct them towards a particular objective. A state's capabilities are therefore seen as a key determinant of its power and influence in the international system.
    
19. 
    Civil War: A civil war is a conflict between opposing groups or factions within a state, with the aim of gaining control of the state or territory. Civil wars can have a profound impact on the stability and security of a state, as well as its neighbors, and can often result in significant human suffering and displacement. In the context of international relations, civil wars can also have implications for regional and global security, as neighboring states or international actors may become involved in the conflict, either as mediators or as participants.
    
20. 
    Clash of Civilizations: The Clash of Civilizations is a theory of international relations first articulated by political scientist Samuel Huntington in the early 1990s. The theory argues that in the post-Cold War world, the primary source of conflict and competition will be cultural and religious differences between different civilizations, rather than ideological differences between states. Huntington argued that the world would be divided into several major civilizations, including Western, Islamic, Confucian, Hindu, and Slavic, each with its own distinct values, norms, and interests. The Clash of Civilizations theory has been controversial, with some seeing it as an accurate description of the future of international relations, and others criticizing it as overly simplified and overly pessimistic.
    

21. COLONIALISM 22. COMMUNAL CONFLICT 23. CAPITAL CONTROLS 24. CAPITALISM 25. CENTER-PERIPHERY POLITICS

21. 
    Colonialism: Colonialism is a political, economic, and social system in which a state or other powerful actor seeks to extend its control over territories outside its own borders. Colonialism has a long history, dating back to the early modern era, when European powers began establishing overseas colonies and empires. In many cases, colonialism involved the exploitation of the resources and labor of the colonized people, as well as the imposition of European norms and values on the local population. Colonialism has had a profound and lasting impact on the world, shaping the political, economic, and cultural systems of many states and contributing to the development of contemporary international relations.
    
22. 
    Communal Conflict: Communal conflict refers to conflict between different ethnic, religious, or linguistic communities within a state or society. Communal conflict can take many forms, from small-scale outbreaks of violence to large-scale civil wars. It is often rooted in deep-seated historical, cultural, or political differences between communities, and can be exacerbated by economic, social, and political factors, such as poverty, inequality, and political marginalization. Communal conflict can have devastating effects on the stability and security of a state, as well as its citizens, and can be difficult to resolve without sustained and effective mediation and peacebuilding efforts.
    
23. 
    Capital Controls: Capital controls are government regulations that restrict the flow of capital in and out of a country. Capital controls can take many forms, such as taxes on capital outflows, restrictions on foreign investment, or limits on currency conversion. Capital controls are often used by governments to maintain economic stability, reduce the risk of financial crises, or prevent the outflow of valuable resources from the country. However, capital controls can also have negative effects on economic growth and competitiveness, and can limit the ability of firms and individuals to access foreign capital and markets.
    
24. 
    Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated for profit. Capitalism has been the dominant economic system in the world since the 19th century, and is characterized by competition, innovation, and market efficiency. Capitalism has been credited with driving economic growth and development, but has also been criticized for its tendency to produce economic inequality and instability, and for its negative effects on the environment and on working people.
    
25. 
    Center-Periphery Politics: Center-periphery politics refers to the political and economic dynamics between the center and the periphery of a state or region. The center is often seen as the dominant political and economic power, while the periphery is seen as the weaker and more marginalized area. Center-periphery dynamics can result in unequal distributions of power and resources, as well as political and economic marginalization of peripheral communities. This can contribute to the development of social, political, and economic tensions, and can have implications for the stability and security of a state or region.
    

26. COERCION 27. COLD WAR 28. COLLECTIVE SECURITY 29. COMMUNISM 30. COMMUNITARIANISM

26. 
    Coercion: Coercion refers to the use of threats or force to obtain compliance or obedience from another actor. In international relations, coercion is often used as a means of achieving foreign policy goals, such as deterring aggressive behavior, defending national interests, or maintaining regional stability. Coercion can take many forms, from diplomatic pressure and economic sanctions to military intervention and the use of military force. While coercion can be an effective tool for achieving foreign policy goals, it can also have negative consequences, such as escalation of conflict, loss of life, and damage to relationships and trust between states.
    
27. 
    Cold War: The Cold War was a state of geopolitical and ideological tension between the Western powers, led by the United States, and the Communist powers, led by the Soviet Union, that lasted from the end of World War II in 1945 until the early 1990s. The Cold War was characterized by a global competition for influence and power, as well as a number of proxy wars and military conflicts, including the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The Cold War was primarily driven by the ideological differences between capitalism and communism, and the struggle for global dominance between the two superpowers.
    
28. 
    Collective Security: Collective security is a system of international relations in which states work together to maintain peace and security, and to respond to threats to international peace and security. Collective security is based on the principle that the security of one state is dependent on the security of all states, and that states must work together to address common security challenges. Collective security is often seen as an alternative to balance-of-power politics, and is typically implemented through international organizations such as the United Nations.
    
29. 
    Communism: Communism is a political and economic ideology that seeks to create a classless society in which all property and resources are collectively owned and controlled, and all people have equal access to the means of production and distribution. Communism is based on the principles of Marxist theory, which argues that the exploitation of the working class by the ruling class is the root cause of social and economic inequality. Communist states have been established in several countries, including the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, and North Korea, but most have since transitioned to more market-oriented systems.
    
30. 
    Communitarianism: Communitarianism is a political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of community and social cohesion in shaping individual identity and political action. Communitarians argue that individuals are not independent actors, but are deeply shaped by the social and cultural contexts in which they live. As a result, communitarians emphasize the need for a strong and supportive community to provide individuals with a sense of belonging and purpose. In international relations, communitarianism has been applied as a framework for understanding the role of regional and global communities in shaping state behavior and international cooperation.
    

31. CONCERT OF POWERS 32. CONTAINMENT 33. COSMOPOLITANISM 34. CRISIS 35. CONFLICT (INTL’)

31. 
    Concert of Powers: A Concert of Powers refers to a system of international relations in which great powers work together to maintain peace and stability in the international system. In a Concert of Powers, the great powers coordinate their foreign policies and military strategies in order to address common security challenges and maintain the balance of power. The Concert of Powers is often seen as a way to avoid the destructive effects of balance-of-power politics, and is typically implemented through international organizations such as the United Nations.
    
32. 
    Containment: Containment is a foreign policy strategy aimed at limiting the expansion of an adversary's power and influence. In international relations, containment is often used to describe the policy of the United States towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War, in which the US sought to contain the spread of Soviet influence and power through a combination of economic, military, and diplomatic measures. Containment has been a common strategy used by great powers to limit the expansion of rivals, and has been applied in a variety of historical and contemporary contexts.
    
33. 
    Cosmopolitanism: Cosmopolitanism is a philosophical and political perspective that emphasizes the importance of universal values and the interconnectedness of all individuals and communities. In international relations, cosmopolitanism is often seen as a framework for understanding the role of global institutions and norms in shaping state behavior and promoting international cooperation. Cosmopolitans argue that the welfare and security of individuals and communities is not limited by national boundaries, and that states have a responsibility to work together to address global challenges such as poverty, inequality, and conflict.
    
34. 
    Crisis: A crisis is a situation in which the normal functioning of a system is disrupted and the outcome is uncertain. In international relations, a crisis can refer to a situation in which a state, a region, or the international system as a whole is threatened by a security, economic, or political challenge. Crises can take many forms, from military conflicts and acts of terrorism, to economic crises and political upheavals. Crises can have significant impacts on international stability and security, and often require swift and decisive action by states and international organizations to prevent escalation and restore stability.
    
35. 
    Conflict (International): Conflict refers to a situation in which two or more actors have incompatible goals or interests and engage in some form of opposing behavior, such as violence or competition. In international relations, conflict refers to situations in which states, non-state actors, or international organizations engage in opposing behavior that threatens peace and security at the international or regional level. Conflict can take many forms, from armed conflict and terrorism, to economic competition and political disagreements. Conflict is a common feature of international relations, and can have significant impacts on stability, security, and economic development.
    

36. DECOLONIZATION 37. DE FACTO/DE JURE 38. DOMESTIC JURISDICTION 39. DEBT TRAP 40. DECOLONISATION
3 / 3

36. 
    Decolonization: Decolonization refers to the process of ending colonial rule and transferring political control from a colonial power to a newly independent state. Decolonization was a major global trend in the 20th century, as many countries in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean gained independence from European colonial powers. The process of decolonization was often characterized by political and social upheaval, and sometimes resulted in violence and conflict. Decolonization transformed the international system, as many newly independent states gained membership in the United Nations and sought to assert their independence and influence in world affairs.
    
37. 
    De Facto/De Jure: De facto refers to a situation or state of affairs that exists in practice, regardless of legal or formal recognition. De jure refers to a situation or state of affairs that is legally recognized or established by law. In international relations, the distinction between de facto and de jure can be important in understanding the nature and scope of political, economic, and military relationships between states. For example, a state may exercise de facto control over a territory, but not have de jure sovereignty over that territory.
    
38. 
    Domestic Jurisdiction: Domestic jurisdiction refers to the power and authority of a state to govern and regulate its own internal affairs. Domestic jurisdiction is a fundamental principle of state sovereignty, and is recognized and protected by international law. In international relations, the concept of domestic jurisdiction is important in understanding the limits and obligations of states in exercising their sovereignty and in resolving disputes between states.
    
39. 
    Debt Trap: A debt trap is a situation in which a borrower (often a developing country) is unable to repay its debt, and is compelled to take on additional debt in order to service its existing obligations. Debt traps can arise from a variety of factors, including economic mismanagement, corruption, and unfavorable economic conditions. In international relations, debt traps have been a concern in the context of foreign aid and development finance, as many developing countries have taken on significant debt in order to finance development projects, only to find themselves unable to repay their obligations.
    
40. 
    Decolonization: Decolonization refers to the process of ending colonial rule and transferring political control from a colonial power to a newly independent state. Decolonization was a major global trend in the 20th century, as many countries in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean gained independence from European colonial powers. The process of decolonization was often characterized by political and social upheaval, and sometimes resulted in violence and conflict. Decolonization transformed the international system, as many newly independent states gained membership in the United Nations and sought to assert their independence and influence in world affairs.
    

41. DEMOCRATIC PEACE 42. DEMOCRATISATION 43. DEPENDENCY 44. DETERRENCE 45. DEVELOPMENT

41. 
    Democratic Peace: The Democratic Peace is the idea that democracies are less likely to go to war with one another than with non-democratic states. This idea has been supported by empirical evidence and political science research, which has shown that democracies are less prone to conflict and are more likely to resolve their differences through diplomatic means. The democratic peace theory has been used to support the promotion of democracy as a means of promoting peace and stability in international relations.
    
42. 
    Democratization: Democratization refers to the process of establishing or strengthening democratic institutions and practices within a state. Democratization can involve a range of reforms, such as increasing the rights and representation of citizens, strengthening the rule of law, and reducing the power and influence of the military and other non-democratic actors. In international relations, democratization has been seen as a key factor in promoting peace, stability, and good governance, and has been a focus of foreign policy and development efforts in many countries.
    
43. 
    Dependency: Dependency refers to a situation in which one state or region is economically, politically, or militarily dependent on another state or region. Dependency can result from a variety of factors, such as economic relationships, unequal development, or political domination. In international relations, dependency has been a concern in the context of developing countries, which often have limited economic and political independence and are vulnerable to the influence and control of developed countries.
    
44. 
    Deterrence: Deterrence is the use of military, economic, or political power to prevent an adversary from taking an action deemed harmful to one's own interests. Deterrence is based on the idea that the threat of retaliation or punishment will discourage an adversary from taking actions that would harm one's own interests. In international relations, deterrence has been a key principle of military strategy and security policy, and has been used by states to prevent conflict and to maintain stability in the international system
    

45. DEVELOPMENT

45. 
    Development: Development refers to the process of improving the social, economic, and political conditions of a country or region. This can include efforts to increase economic growth, reduce poverty and inequality, improve access to education and healthcare, and strengthen democratic institutions and human rights. In international relations, development is a major concern, as the unequal distribution of resources and development opportunities across the world has been seen as a major source of conflict and instability. The concept of development has evolved over time, and there has been ongoing debate over the best strategies for promoting development, as well as the role that developed countries should play in supporting development efforts in developing countries.
    

46. DIASPORA 47. DIGITAL DIVIDE 48. DIPLOMACY 49. DISARMAMENT 50. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

46. 
    Diaspora: A diaspora refers to a group of people who have dispersed from their original homeland to live in other countries. Diasporas can form for a variety of reasons, including conflict, persecution, economic opportunities, or political repression. In international relations, diasporas can play an important role in promoting cultural exchange and economic development, as well as influencing the foreign policies of their host countries and the countries of their origin.
    
47. 
    Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to the unequal distribution of access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) across different countries, regions, and social groups. The digital divide is a concern in international relations because it can reinforce existing inequalities and undermine development efforts. Efforts to bridge the digital divide have focused on expanding access to ICTs and improving the quality of internet infrastructure in developing countries.
    
48. 
    Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the process of negotiating and managing relationships between states and other actors in the international system. Diplomacy involves the use of formal and informal communication, negotiation, and problem-solving to resolve conflicts and advance common interests. In international relations, diplomacy is seen as a key tool for promoting peace and stability, and is used by states to manage their relationships with one another and to address a wide range of global issues, including security, economic cooperation, and human rights.
    
49. 
    Disarmament: Disarmament refers to the reduction or elimination of military capabilities and weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). Disarmament is a key goal in international security and arms control efforts, as reducing military capabilities can reduce the risk of conflict and promote stability in the international system. Disarmament efforts have focused on reducing the number of nuclear weapons, as well as the spread of WMDs and conventional weapons.
    
50. 
    Distributive Justice: Distributive justice refers to the distribution of benefits and burdens in a society or the international system. Distributive justice is concerned with questions of fairness, equality, and the distribution of resources, and is a central issue in debates about the distribution of wealth, power, and opportunities across the world. In international relations, distributive justice has been a key concern in the context of development, as unequal distributions of wealth and power can lead to conflict and undermine stability. Efforts to promote distributive justice have included initiatives to reduce poverty, promote economic growth, and reduce inequality.
    

51. 
    Elite: An elite can be defined as a small, privileged group of individuals who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, power, and influence within a society or the international system. Elites often play a major role in shaping the policies and decisions of their countries, and their views and interests can greatly influence international relations. In some cases, elites may act as gatekeepers, controlling access to resources, opportunities, and information and shaping public opinion. In others, they may use their power and influence to shape economic and political systems to their advantage. Understanding the role and actions of elites is crucial to understanding the dynamics of international relations and the distribution of power and resources in the global system.
    
52. 
    Enclave: An enclave is a territory that is entirely surrounded by the territory of another state. Enclaves can arise for a variety of reasons, including historical borders, ethnic and religious differences, and territorial disputes. In international relations, enclaves can create tensions and conflicts, as the surrounding state may attempt to exert control over the enclave, or the enclave may seek greater autonomy or independence. Examples of enclaves include the Spanish enclave of Ceuta in Morocco, the Russian-controlled Crimea, and the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
    
53. 
    Equality of States: The principle of equality of states holds that all states, regardless of size, wealth, or power, are equal in terms of their rights and obligations under international law. This principle is based on the idea of sovereignty, which states that all states have equal rights to self-determination and independence. The principle of equality of states is enshrined in the United Nations Charter and is considered a cornerstone of the international system. However, in practice, the unequal distribution of power and resources often leads to unequal treatment of states in international relations, with powerful states exerting greater influence and weaker states being marginalized.
    
54. 
    Ethnic Cleansing: Ethnic cleansing is a violent and systematic campaign aimed at forcibly removing an ethnic or religious group from a certain territory, often with the aim of creating an homogeneous state. Ethnic cleansing is a form of genocide and is considered a serious violation of international law. Examples of ethnic cleansing in recent history include the mass displacement and killing of minority populations during the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s, the genocide of the Tutsi in Rwanda in 1994, and the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar in 2017.
    
55. 
    Ethnic Nationalism: Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes the cultural, linguistic, and historical differences between ethnic groups and seeks to create separate, independent states for each group. Ethnic nationalism can be a source of conflict in international relations, particularly in regions where different ethnic groups have overlapping territorial claims or where ethnic tensions have been exacerbated by historical injustices or political and economic grievances. Ethnic nationalism often leads to demands for greater autonomy or independence for ethnic minority groups and can result in the emergence of separatist movements and civil wars. Examples of ethnic nationalism include the Scottish independence movement, the Catalan independence movement in Spain, and the Kurdish independence movement in Iraq and Syria.
    

56. 
    ETHNOCENTRISM: Ethnocentrism refers to the belief that one's own culture and ethnicity are superior to others. It often results in individuals judging other cultures based on the standards and values of their own culture. This can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and hostility towards those who are seen as different. Ethnocentrism can be found at the individual and societal levels, and is a major barrier to understanding and cooperation between different groups.
    
57. 
    EXTRATERRITORIALITY: Extraterritoriality is a legal concept that refers to the idea that a country or jurisdiction does not have the power to enforce its laws beyond its own borders. This can apply to individuals, corporations, or other entities. For example, if a corporation operates in multiple countries, it may be subject to the laws of each country, but may also enjoy some level of immunity from certain legal actions due to extraterritoriality.
    
58. 
    EMBEDDED LIBERALISM: Embedded liberalism is a term used to describe the idea that liberal norms, such as free trade, open markets, and democracy, have become embedded and influential within the international system. This means that states are influenced by and act in accordance with these liberal norms, even if they do not fully embrace them as their own political ideologies. The term is used to explain why many states have adopted more liberal policies, even if they do not consider themselves liberal democracies.
    
59. 
    END OF HISTORY: The end of history is a concept first popularized by political scientist Francis Fukuyama, who argued that the triumph of liberal democracy and capitalism marks the endpoint of ideological evolution and historical progress. According to this idea, the world has reached a final stage in which liberal democracy and capitalism are the dominant forms of government and economics, and no further progress is possible. This concept has been heavily debated and criticized, with many arguing that history is not at an end, but is instead constantly evolving.
    
60. 
    ENEMY COMBATANT: An enemy combatant is a term used to describe individuals who are considered hostile to the United States and its allies during a time of war or conflict. This can include terrorists, militants, and other non-state actors who are not entitled to the same protections as prisoners of war under international law. The term is controversial, as it is often used to justify detention without trial or other actions that may violate civil liberties. The definition of an enemy combatant and the legal rights of such individuals are still being debated and evolved in the international community.
    

PROVIDE A DEFINITION TO/EXPLANATION OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS TERMS/KEYWORDS AND 'GENERALIZE' YOUR ANSWER WITH RELEVANT DATA/EXAMPLES. 61. ETHNICITY 62. EXPLOITATION 63. FRAGILE /FAILED NATIONSTATES 64. FEDERALISM 65. FRONTIE

61. 
    Ethnicity: refers to a group of people who share a common cultural, linguistic, religious, or ancestral background. Ethnicity can influence a person's identity, values, and beliefs, and can also contribute to conflict or cooperation among different ethnic groups.
    
62. 
    Exploitation: refers to the act of taking advantage of a situation or person for one's own benefit, often at the expense of others. This can occur in the context of economic, political, or social relationships and can result in unequal distribution of resources and power.
    
63. 
    Fragile/Failed States: refers to a country that is unable to fulfill its basic functions, such as providing security and governance, and delivering essential services to its citizens. This can be due to conflict, weak institutions, poverty, or a combination of these factors.
    
64. 
    Federalism: a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units. Federalism is a way to balance the autonomy of individual states with the needs of a larger national community, and can help to ensure that all citizens have access to government services and protections.
    
65. 
    Frontier: refers to a region at the edge of a settled area that is not fully controlled or developed. Frontiers can be geographical, such as a remote wilderness, or political, such as a boundary between two countries or territories. Frontiers can also represent opportunities for expansion and growth, but also carry risks such as conflict and instability.
    

MORE FULLY ANSWER

61. 
    Ethnicity: Ethnicity refers to the shared cultural characteristics that define a group of people, such as language, ancestry, history, religion, or other traditions. These shared characteristics often shape a person's identity and can influence their values, beliefs, and behavior. Ethnicity can also be a source of pride and a sense of belonging, but it can also lead to conflict and division if different ethnic groups are in competition for resources, political power, or cultural recognition.
    
62. 
    Exploitation: Exploitation refers to the act of taking advantage of a situation or person for one's own benefit, often at the expense of others. This can occur in various forms, such as economic exploitation, where a person or group benefits from the labor or resources of another person or group without providing fair compensation. Political exploitation occurs when a person or group gains power and uses it to dominate or oppress others. Social exploitation refers to the way that power imbalances within a society can lead to the exploitation of certain groups, such as women, minorities, or the poor.
    
63. 
    Fragile/Failed States: A fragile or failed state is a country that is unable to effectively provide for the basic needs and security of its citizens. This can occur due to a number of factors, such as internal conflict, weak governance institutions, poverty, environmental degradation, or a combination of these factors. In a failed state, the government is unable to deliver essential services, enforce laws, or maintain order, leading to widespread insecurity and instability.
    
64. 
    Federalism: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, such as states or provinces. This allows for a balance between the autonomy of individual states and the needs of the larger national community. Federalism can help to ensure that all citizens have access to government services and protections, and can also allow for a degree of local control and decision-making. This system can also provide a mechanism for resolving conflicts between different states or regions.
    
65. 
    Frontier: A frontier can refer to a geographical region at the edge of a settled area that is not fully controlled or developed, or it can refer to a political boundary between two countries or territories. Frontiers often represent opportunities for expansion and growth, but they can also be associated with risks and uncertainties, such as conflict, instability, and the exploitation of resources and people. The concept of the frontier has been important in the history of many countries and has shaped the way that people interact with new territories and cultures.
    

66. FEMINISM 67. FOREIGN AID 68. FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI) 69. FREE TRADE 70. FUNCTIONALISM

66. 
    Feminism: Feminism is a social, political, and cultural movement that seeks to advance gender equality and challenge systemic sexism and discrimination against women. Feminism advocates for the rights of women and girls, including the right to vote, to access education and employment, and to control their own bodies. There are various strands of feminism, including liberal, Marxist, and intersectional feminisms, each with their own perspectives and goals.
    
67. 
    Foreign Aid: Foreign aid refers to financial, technical, or material assistance provided by one country to another, usually with the aim of promoting economic development, reducing poverty, or addressing humanitarian needs. Foreign aid can take the form of grants, loans, or technical assistance and can be provided by governments, international organizations, or private sector organizations.
    
68. 
    Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Foreign Direct Investment refers to a company or individual investing in or acquiring a business or assets in a foreign country with the goal of establishing and maintaining a lasting interest in the foreign enterprise. FDI can bring capital, technology, and jobs to the host country, but it can also lead to concerns about the loss of national control over key industries, cultural impacts, and environmental degradation.
    
69. 
    Free Trade: Free trade is a system of international trade in which goods and services are traded between countries with minimal restrictions or tariffs. Free trade is based on the idea that competition and the free market will lead to increased economic efficiency, lower prices for consumers, and improved standards of living. Supporters of free trade argue that it can promote economic growth and reduce poverty, but critics argue that it can lead to the exploitation of workers and the environment, and can result in the loss of jobs and industries in certain countries.
    
70. 
    Functionalism: Functionalism is a theory in international relations that explains how international institutions and organizations help to maintain stability and promote cooperation among states. According to functionalism, international organizations and institutions serve as a mechanism for states to work together on common problems, such as security, trade, or the environment. This theory holds that cooperation and coordination between states is necessary for the functioning of the international system and that international institutions play a crucial role in facilitating this cooperation.
    

71. GENOCIDE 72. GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY 73. GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS 74. GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 75. GLOBAL WARMING

71. 
    Genocide: Genocide is the intentional and systematic destruction of a racial, ethnic, religious, or national group. This can take the form of killing, causing serious bodily or mental harm, or imposing conditions that lead to the physical destruction of a group. Genocide is widely considered to be a crime against humanity and is prohibited by international law. Some of the most well-known examples of genocide include the Armenian Genocide, the Holocaust, and the Rwandan Genocide.
    
72. 
    Global Civil Society: Global Civil Society refers to a global network of non-governmental organizations, civil society groups, and individuals that work together to address global issues and promote social justice. Global civil society organizations can be involved in a variety of issues, including human rights, environmental protection, poverty reduction, and disease control. These organizations often operate independently of governments and can play an important role in shaping global public opinion and promoting change.
    
73. 
    Global Financial Crisis: The Global Financial Crisis refers to the economic recession that occurred between 2007 and 2009 and had far-reaching impacts on the global economy. The crisis was caused by a combination of factors, including the subprime mortgage crisis, the collapse of the housing market, and the failure of large financial institutions. The crisis led to widespread job losses, rising poverty, and a decline in economic growth, and has had long-lasting impacts on the global economy.
    
74. 
    Global Governance: Global Governance refers to the process of decision-making and regulation at the international level to address global issues and problems. This can take the form of international organizations, such as the United Nations, or informal networks of states and non-state actors. The aim of global governance is to promote cooperation and coordination among states and other actors to address global challenges, such as climate change, poverty, or conflict.
    
75. 
    Global Warming: Global Warming refers to the long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system, which is primarily caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. Global warming has a range of negative impacts, including rising sea levels, more frequent and intense heatwaves, droughts, and storms, as well as impacts on ecosystems, wildlife, and human health. Addressing global warming requires collective action from governments, businesses, and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources.
    

75. GLOBAL WARMING 76. GLOBALISATION 77. GOVERNMENTALITY 78. GREAT POWERS 79. GROUP OF TWENTY (G-20) 80. “GROUPS OF FRIENDS”

75. 
    Global Warming: Global Warming refers to the long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system, which is primarily caused by the emission of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. Global warming has a range of negative impacts, including rising sea levels, more frequent and intense heatwaves, droughts, and storms, as well as impacts on ecosystems, wildlife, and human health. Addressing global warming requires collective action from governments, businesses, and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources.
    
76. 
    Globalization: Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world's economies, societies, and cultures. Globalization has been driven by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, as well as the reduction of trade barriers and the growth of multinational corporations. While globalization has brought many benefits, such as increased economic growth and improved standards of living, it has also led to concerns about job losses, inequality, and environmental degradation.
    
77. 
    Governmentality: Governmentality is a concept in social and political theory that refers to the ways in which power is exercised and how individuals and groups are governed. The concept highlights the ways in which power is not just exercised by the state, but is also embedded in social relations, knowledge, and practices. Governmentality is often associated with Michel Foucault's work on the exercise of power in modern societies.
    
78. 
    Great Powers: Great Powers are states that have significant military, economic, and political influence on the international stage. These states have the ability to shape international events and have a significant impact on the global balance of power. Historically, great powers have included states such as the United States, Russia, China, the United Kingdom, and France.
    
79. 
    Group of Twenty (G-20): The Group of Twenty (G-20) is an international forum for the world's largest economies, consisting of 19 countries and the European Union. The G-20 was established in 1999 to promote cooperation and coordination among countries on issues such as economic growth, financial stability, and development. The G-20 holds regular summits to discuss global economic and financial issues and has been instrumental in addressing the impacts of the global financial crisis.
    
80. 
    "Groups of Friends": "Groups of Friends" is a term used to describe informal networks of countries or organizations that work together on specific issues or regions. These groups are not formal international organizations, but rather ad-hoc arrangements that allow countries and organizations to work together on specific topics or regions. "Groups of Friends" can be established to address a range of issues, including peacebuilding, human rights, environmental protection, and economic development.
    

81. HEGEMONIC/HEGEMONIAL STABILITY THEORY 82. HEGEMONY 83. HIERARCHY 84. HOBBESIAN 85. HUMAN RIGHTS

81. 
    Hegemonic/Hegemony Stability theory: Hegemonic/Hegemony stability theory is a theory in international relations that suggests that a dominant state, or hegemon, is necessary for the maintenance of international stability and the provision of global public goods. According to the theory, the hegemon has the power and the willingness to enforce international norms and rules, and to provide leadership in addressing global challenges such as conflict, poverty, and climate change.
    
82. 
    Hegemony: Hegemony refers to the dominance of one state or group over others. Hegemony can be based on economic, military, or political power, and can take the form of formal empires or informal influence. Hegemony can have both positive and negative impacts on international relations, as the dominant state or group can provide stability and leadership, but can also pursue its own interests at the expense of other countries.
    
83. 
    Hierarchy: Hierarchy refers to the ranking or arrangement of elements in a system, such as states, organizations, or individuals, based on their relative power, status, or authority. Hierarchies are common in many different fields, including politics, economics, and military. In international relations, hierarchy can take the form of the hierarchical relationships between states or the hierarchy of international organizations.
    
84. 
    Hobbesian: Hobbesian refers to the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher who lived in the 17th century. Hobbes is known for his pessimistic view of human nature and his belief in the need for a strong central authority, or Leviathan, to keep order and maintain peace. Hobbesian ideas have influenced political theory and international relations, and have been used to explain the role of the state in maintaining order and the importance of international institutions in preserving peace.
    
85. 
    Human rights: Human rights are universal and inalienable rights that are entitled to all people, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or nationality. Human rights include the right to life, liberty, and security of person; freedom from discrimination; freedom of expression, religion, and assembly; and the right to education, work, and healthcare. The protection and promotion of human rights are a central concern of international relations, and many international organizations and treaties have been established to promote and defend human rights globally.
    

86. HUMAN SECURITY 87. HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION 88. IDENTITY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 89. IMAGE/BRAND 90. IMPERIALISM

86. 
    Human security: Human security is a concept in international relations that focuses on the security and well-being of individuals and communities, rather than the security of states. It refers to a wide range of threats to individuals and communities, including poverty, disease, political violence, and environmental degradation. The concept of human security aims to address these threats by promoting policies that enhance the security and well-being of individuals and communities, and by placing the needs and rights of people at the center of international policy and decision-making.
    
87. 
    Humanitarian intervention: Humanitarian intervention is the use of military force by one or more states in response to widespread human suffering, such as war, famine, or natural disasters. The idea behind humanitarian intervention is to protect the basic rights and well-being of individuals and communities, and to provide assistance and support in emergency situations. However, the use of military force for humanitarian purposes can raise complex legal and ethical questions, and has been the subject of much debate and criticism in international relations.
    
88. 
    Identity in international relations: Identity in international relations refers to the ways in which individual and collective identities are formed, maintained, and expressed in the international system. Identity can take many forms, including national, ethnic, religious, cultural, and institutional identities, and can play a powerful role in shaping international politics and diplomacy. The relationship between identity and international relations is complex, and can have both positive and negative effects on international cooperation and conflict.
    
89. 
    Image/brand: Image and brand are terms used to describe the reputation and perception of a state, organization, or individual in the international system. Image refers to the way in which a state, organization, or individual is perceived by others, based on their actions, policies, and values. A positive image can enhance a state or organization's reputation, and make it easier for them to achieve their goals in the international system. Brand refers to the specific qualities, attributes, or values that are associated with a state or organization, and that help to differentiate them from others.
    
90. 
    Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy or practice of extending a state's power and influence over other states, territories, or peoples. Imperialism can take many forms, including military conquest, economic domination, and cultural hegemony, and can be driven by a variety of motives, including economic interests, national security, and the desire for prestige and influence. Imperialism has been a significant force in international relations for centuries, and has shaped the modern international system in many profound ways. However, it has also been the source of much conflict, oppression, and exploitation, and remains a controversial and often-criticized aspect of international relations.
    

91. INSURGENCY 92. INTEGRATION 93. INTERNAL COLONIALISM 94. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM 95. IRREDENTISM

91. 
    Insurgency: Insurgency refers to the use of armed resistance or rebellion by a group within a state to challenge the legitimacy or authority of the government. Insurgency can take many forms, ranging from guerrilla warfare to acts of terrorism, and can be motivated by a variety of factors, including political, economic, or ethnic grievances. Insurgency can be a significant threat to stability and security within a state, and can also have wider regional or global implications, depending on the level of violence and instability it causes.
    
92. 
    Integration: Integration refers to the process of bringing together separate entities into a single, unified whole. In international relations, integration refers to the process of increasing cooperation and coordination between states, regions, or other actors in the international system. Integration can take many forms, including economic integration (such as the creation of trade blocs or common markets), political integration (such as the creation of supranational institutions), and military integration (such as the creation of regional defense arrangements).
    
93. 
    Internal colonialism: Internal colonialism refers to the domination of one ethnic, national, or regional group over another within a state. Internal colonialism can take many forms, including economic exploitation, cultural oppression, and political domination, and can be driven by a variety of motives, including economic interests, ethnic nationalism, or the desire for prestige and influence. Internal colonialism can be a significant source of conflict, violence, and instability within a state, and can also have wider regional or global implications, depending on the level of violence and instability it causes.
    
94. 
    International system: The international system refers to the set of political, economic, and social relations between states and other actors in the international community. The international system is shaped by a variety of factors, including the distribution of power and influence, the nature of international institutions, and the dynamics of international cooperation and conflict. The international system has evolved over time, and has taken many different forms, including the Westphalian system, the Cold War system, and the current system of globalization and interdependence.
    
95. 
    Irredentism: Irredentism refers to the political or cultural movement that seeks to reclaim territory or peoples that are seen as having been historically or ethnically linked to a particular state or nation. Irredentism can be driven by a variety of factors, including ethnic nationalism, historical claims, or economic interests, and can lead to demands for territorial expansion, or even to armed conflict. Irredentism can be a significant source of tension and instability in international relations, and has been a cause of conflict in many parts of the world.
    

96. IDEALISM 97. IMAGINED COMMUNITY 98. INTEGRATION 99. INTERDEPENDENCE 100. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNALS

96. 
    Idealism: Idealism is a philosophical and political perspective in international relations that emphasizes the importance of moral and ethical principles, and argues that states and other actors in the international system should be guided by shared values and goals, rather than by narrow self-interest or power politics. Idealists believe that states have a moral obligation to promote peace, justice, and human rights, and that the international system should be structured to support these goals. Idealism is often contrasted with realism, which argues that states and other actors in the international system are primarily motivated by self-interest, and that the international system is inherently anarchic and competitive.
    
97. 
    Imagined community: An imagined community refers to a social group that is created and sustained through shared cultural, historical, or political ties, even though the members of the group may never have met or interacted in person. The concept of an imagined community is often used to describe the phenomenon of nationalism, which refers to the belief in the existence of a shared cultural, historical, or political identity among the members of a nation, even though the nation may span a large geographical area and contain diverse populations.
    
98. 
    Integration: Integration refers to the process of bringing together separate entities into a single, unified whole. In international relations, integration refers to the process of increasing cooperation and coordination between states, regions, or other actors in the international system. Integration can take many forms, including economic integration (such as the creation of trade blocs or common markets), political integration (such as the creation of supranational institutions), and military integration (such as the creation of regional defense arrangements).
    
99. 
    Interdependence: Interdependence refers to the interconnectedness of states, regions, and other actors in the international system, such that the actions and decisions of one actor have significant impacts on the interests and well-being of others. Interdependence can be driven by a variety of factors, including trade, investment, migration, and communication, and can create both opportunities for cooperation and challenges for conflict.
    
100. 
     International Criminal Tribunals: International Criminal Tribunals are special courts established by international organizations or by a coalition of states to prosecute individuals for serious violations of international law, such as war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. International Criminal Tribunals serve as a means of holding individuals accountable for their actions, and of deterring future violations of international law. Examples of international criminal tribunals include the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR).
     

101. INTERNATIONAL LAW 102. INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY 103. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY 104. ISOLATIONISM 105. JUST WAR

101. 
     International Law: International law is a set of rules, principles, and norms that govern the relations between states and other actors in the international system. International law sets out standards for the conduct of states and individuals in international affairs, and provides a framework for resolving disputes and promoting cooperation. International law is derived from a variety of sources, including treaties, customary international law, and general principles of law, and is enforced through a combination of diplomacy, negotiation, and, in some cases, international courts and tribunals.
     
102. 
     International Political Economy: International Political Economy (IPE) is a field of study that combines the insights of international relations and economics to examine the role of economics and politics in shaping the global system. IPE considers the interactions between states, international organizations, and other actors in the global economy, and examines how these interactions shape the distribution of power, wealth, and resources in the international system. Key topics of study in IPE include trade, investment, finance, and development, as well as the role of international institutions, such as the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund.
     
103. 
     International Society: International Society refers to the idea that states and other actors in the international system are bound together by a shared set of norms, values, and institutions that shape their interactions and relationships. International society is often contrasted with the realist perspective, which argues that the international system is characterized by a lack of common norms and institutions, and that actors are motivated primarily by self-interest. The concept of international society is often associated with the English School of International Relations, which emphasizes the role of norms, values, and institutions in shaping international relations.
     
104. 
     Isolationism: Isolationism refers to a foreign policy stance that prioritizes national independence and self-sufficiency, and seeks to minimize engagement with other actors in the international system. Isolationists argue that involvement in international affairs, including military interventions and participation in international organizations, undermines national sovereignty and independence, and that the focus should be on protecting and promoting national interests. Isolationism is often contrasted with internationalism, which argues that states and other actors in the international system should be actively engaged in cooperation and coordination with others in order to promote peace and security.
     
105. 
     Just War: The Just War theory is a moral framework for evaluating the use of military force in international affairs. The theory argues that war can be morally justifiable only in certain circumstances, such as when it is waged in self-defense, or to prevent greater harm from occurring. The theory also lays out a number of criteria that must be met for a war to be considered just, including the need for a just cause, right intention, last resort, proportionality, and reasonable prospect of success. The Just War theory is used as a basis for evaluating the morality of military actions, as well as for shaping military policy and international law.
     

106. 
     LEGITIMACY - Legitimacy is a key concept in international relations that refers to the recognition and acceptance of a political entity or regime as rightful and just. It is important for a government or international organization to have legitimacy in order to maintain stability and order, as well as to effectively carry out its functions and policies. Legitimacy can be gained through various means, such as democratic elections, international treaties and laws, and the upholding of human rights. In the absence of legitimacy, a government or international organization may face challenges in enforcing its policies and may be more susceptible to internal and external conflict.
     
107. 
     LEVELS OF ANALYSIS - In the study of international relations, the levels of analysis approach refers to the different ways in which scholars examine and understand the relationships and interactions between states and other actors in the international system. The three main levels of analysis are: systemic level, which looks at the overall functioning and structure of the international system; national level, which focuses on the role of individual nation-states in international relations; and individual level, which examines the behavior and decision-making of individuals and small groups within the international system. By considering the international system from multiple perspectives, scholars can gain a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of international relations.
     
108. 
     LIBERAL INTERNATIONALISM - Liberal internationalism is a political ideology and approach to international relations that emphasizes the promotion of liberal values such as democracy, human rights, free trade, and international cooperation. Proponents of liberal internationalism believe that the spread of these values will lead to a more peaceful, prosperous, and stable world. They often advocate for international institutions and agreements to help promote these values and ensure compliance with international law. Examples of liberal internationalist policies and initiatives include the European Union, the World Trade Organization, and various humanitarian interventions.
     
109. 
     LOW-INTENSITY CONFLICT (LIC) - Low-Intensity Conflict (LIC) refers to a type of conflict that involves limited military intervention, political instability, and limited violence. Unlike high-intensity wars, LICs are often characterized by more subtle forms of violence, such as guerrilla tactics, terrorism, and insurgency. LICs can have a significant impact on the stability of a region and can lead to the displacement of large numbers of people. Examples of LICs include the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan, the civil war in Syria, and the Colombian insurgency.
     
110. 
     MANAGED TRADE - Managed trade refers to a trade policy in which a government closely regulates and oversees the flow of goods and services between countries in order to achieve specific economic, political, or social goals. Unlike free trade, which relies on market forces to dictate trade patterns, managed trade is actively guided and controlled by the government. Governments may use managed trade to promote specific industries, protect domestic markets, or to address trade imbalances. Managed trade can also be used to address social and environmental concerns. However, managed trade can also lead to trade restrictions and may negatively impact international trade and economic growth.
     

PROVIDE A DEFINITION TO/EXPLANATION OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS TERMS/KEYWORDS AND 'GENERALIZE' YOUR ANSWER WITH RELEVANT DATA/EXAMPLES 116. MODERNISATION THEORY 117. MULTILATERALISM 118. MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION (MNC) 119. MUTUALLY ASSURED DESTRUCTION (MAD) 120. MULTIPOLARITY

116. 
     Modernization Theory: Modernization theory is a development model that explains how societies become more advanced and economically developed over time. It argues that modernization leads to a move from traditional, agricultural societies to modern industrial ones, and that this process is universal and inevitable. The theory holds that societies can be compared and evaluated based on their level of modernization, and that developed countries have a responsibility to assist less developed countries in their modernization process.
     
117. 
     Multilateralism: Multilateralism refers to international cooperation between three or more countries on a particular issue. It contrasts with bilateralism, which involves cooperation between two countries, and unilateralism, which involves a single country acting alone. Multilateralism is often used to address global challenges that cannot be solved by individual countries acting alone, such as climate change, poverty, and terrorism.
     
118. 
     Multinational Corporation (MNC): A multinational corporation (MNC) is a large company that operates in multiple countries. MNCs have significant economic, political, and cultural influence in the countries where they operate, and their actions can have significant impacts on the global economy. Some of the largest MNCs are based in the United States, Europe, and Japan, and they operate in industries such as finance, technology, and consumer goods.
     
119. 
     Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) is a concept in military strategy in which a full-scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender. This idea was a central component of Cold War strategy, and it was believed to serve as a deterrent to nuclear war by creating a situation in which no one would dare to use nuclear weapons first.
     
120. 
     Multipolarity: Multipolarity refers to a world order in which multiple states have significant economic and political power and are able to act as independent actors on the global stage. It contrasts with a unipolar world, in which a single dominant power holds a disproportionate amount of power and influence, and with a bipolar world, in which two superpowers dominate the international system. The post-Cold War period has been characterized as a period of multipolarity, with the rise of countries like China, India, and Brazil as major economic and political players on the global stage.
     

121. NATION 122. NATION-STATE 123. NATIONALISM 124. NON-INTERVENTION 125. NATIONAL INTEREST

121. 
     Nation: A nation is a large group of people who share a common history, culture, language, and identity. Nations are often centered around a particular geographic area, such as a country or region, and they are usually defined by a sense of shared belonging and common values. The concept of a nation can be distinguished from the concept of a state, which refers to a political entity with a defined territory and government.
     
122. 
     Nation-State: A nation-state is a sovereign political entity that is comprised of a single nation. The term nation-state implies that the territory of the state is coincident with the territory of the nation and that the government of the state represents the interests of the nation. Nation-states are the most common form of political organization in the modern world, and they are often defined by a shared language, culture, and history.
     
123. 
     Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of a common national identity and culture. Nationalists believe that nations have the right to self-determination and that the interests of the nation should take precedence over other considerations, such as international cooperation or individual rights. Nationalism can take many forms, from peaceful advocacy for cultural preservation to violent extremism, and it has been a major force in shaping the modern world.
     
124. 
     Non-Intervention: Non-intervention is a principle of international relations that holds that states should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states. Non-intervention is often considered to be a cornerstone of international law and is seen as an important aspect of promoting peace and stability in the international system. However, non-intervention can also be seen as a means of preserving the status quo and can be used to justify inaction in the face of human rights abuses or other injustices.
     
125. 
     National Interest: National interest refers to the political, economic, and security goals of a nation and its government. National interest is used to guide foreign policy and to determine what actions a government should take in order to promote the well-being of its citizens. National interest is a dynamic concept that can change over time as the political and economic circumstances of a nation change, and it is often the subject of debate and negotiation between different political actors.
     

126. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION (NGO) 127. NON-TARIFF BARRIER (NTB) 128. NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION 129. PARADIGM 130. PAX BRITANNICA

126. 
     Non-Governmental Organization (NGO): A Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) is a non-profit organization that operates independently of government and is not a for-profit business. NGOs are often focused on specific issues such as human rights, poverty, or the environment and work to advance their cause through advocacy, education, and direct service delivery. Some NGOs have international reach and work on global issues, while others are local and operate at the community level.
     
127. 
     Non-Tariff Barrier (NTB): Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) are trade restrictions that are not in the form of tariffs but still restrict the flow of goods and services across borders. NTBs can include regulations, licensing requirements, standards, and other measures that make it difficult or costly for foreign businesses to access a market. NTBs are often used as a means of protecting domestic industries and can create trade barriers that are difficult to dismantle.
     
128. 
     Nuclear Proliferation: Nuclear proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear weapons and related technology to countries that do not possess these weapons. Nuclear proliferation is a major concern for the international community, as the spread of nuclear weapons increases the risk of nuclear war and makes it more difficult to achieve international security. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is a key international agreement aimed at preventing nuclear proliferation, and it requires states to pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or related technology to other countries.
     
129. 
     Paradigm: A paradigm is a set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that constitutes a way of understanding and interpreting a particular phenomenon. In the social sciences, paradigms are used to explain patterns of behavior, beliefs, and institutions and to provide a framework for understanding the world. Paradigms can change over time as new evidence emerges and new ideas are developed, leading to shifts in understanding and practice.
     
130. 
     Pax Britannica: Pax Britannica is a Latin term meaning "British Peace," and it refers to a period of relative peace and stability that existed in Europe and the world during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when Britain was the dominant global power. During this time, Britain's naval power and global reach helped to maintain stability and prevent large-scale wars in Europe and other parts of the world. The Pax Britannica is often seen as a precursor to the Pax Americana, which emerged after World War II and refers to the period of American-led global stability and prosperity that has existed since that time.
     

131. PERCEPTION 132. PLURALISM 133. POLARITY 134. PEACE-BUILDING 135. PEACEKEEPING

131. 
     Perception: Perception refers to the way in which individuals, groups, or societies understand and interpret their experiences and the world around them. Perception can be influenced by factors such as culture, background, personal biases, and past experiences, and it can shape people's beliefs and actions. Perception can also play a key role in shaping international relations, as different actors may have different perceptions of events, leading to misunderstandings and conflicts.
     
132. 
     Pluralism: Pluralism is the idea that society is made up of many different groups and that these groups should be able to coexist and interact in a way that respects their differences. In international relations, pluralism refers to the idea that the international system is made up of a diverse array of actors, including states, international organizations, NGOs, and others, and that they should work together to solve global problems. Pluralism is often seen as an alternative to the more traditional state-centric view of international relations, which emphasizes the role of states as the primary actors in the international system.
     
133. 
     Polarity: Polarity refers to the distribution of power and influence within the international system. A system can be unipolar, meaning that one state or actor is dominant, bipolar, meaning that two states or actors are dominant, or multipolar, meaning that several states or actors are roughly equal in power and influence. The distribution of power and influence can change over time as states and actors rise and fall in power, leading to changes in the polarity of the international system.
     
134. 
     Peace-Building: Peace-building refers to the process of creating the conditions that support lasting peace after a conflict has ended. Peace-building can involve a range of activities, such as disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former combatants, institution-building, reconciliation, and the development of democratic institutions. Peace-building is often seen as a long-term process that involves multiple actors and can take many years to achieve its goals.
     
135. 
     Peacekeeping: Peacekeeping refers to the deployment of international military forces to help maintain a ceasefire and support the implementation of a peace agreement. Peacekeeping missions are often authorized by the United Nations and are intended to help create a stable environment in which peace can be consolidated and conflicts can be peacefully resolved. Peacekeeping missions can involve a range of activities, such as monitoring borders, facilitating the delivery of humanitarian aid, and protecting civilians.
     

136. PERPETUAL PEACE 137. POLITICAL RISK 138. POSTCOLONIALISM 139. POSTMODERNISM 140. POWER

136. 
     Perpetual Peace: Perpetual peace is a concept in political theory and international relations that refers to the idea of achieving a state of lasting peace between nations and states. It was first proposed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in his 1795 essay "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch." In this essay, Kant outlined the conditions that would need to be met in order for perpetual peace to be achieved, including the creation of a federation of states, the abolition of standing armies, and the establishment of a system of international law. Despite the difficulties in achieving perpetual peace, the concept remains an ideal that many people continue to strive for.
     
137. 
     Political Risk: Political risk refers to the risk that political events or actions will have an adverse impact on a business or investment. Political risk can arise from a range of factors, such as changes in government policy, political instability, and conflict. Companies and investors need to be aware of political risk when making business decisions and investments, as it can have a significant impact on their ability to operate and generate profits in a given country.
     
138. 
     Postcolonialism: Postcolonialism is a field of study in the humanities and social sciences that examines the cultural, social, and political effects of colonialism. Postcolonialism looks at the way in which colonialism has shaped the world and the ways in which formerly colonized peoples have responded to colonialism and its aftermath. Postcolonialism is often concerned with issues of power and inequality, and the ways in which colonialism has affected the relationship between colonizer and colonized.
     
139. 
     Postmodernism: Postmodernism is a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to modernism. Postmodernism is characterized by a rejection of grand narratives, universal truths, and objective reality, and a focus on the subjective experience of the individual. In international relations, postmodernism is often associated with a critique of traditional approaches to the study of international relations, which are seen as overly focused on the state and state-centric perspectives.
     
140. 
     Power: Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of others. In international relations, power refers to the ability of a state or actor to influence the behavior of other states or actors in the international system. Power can take many forms, including military, economic, political, and cultural power, and the distribution of power in the international system can change over time as states and actors rise and fall in influence. The concept of power is central to the study of international relations, as it helps explain why states and actors behave the way they do and why some states and actors are able to exercise more influence than others.
     

141. PRE-EMPTION 142. PREVENTIVE DIPLOMACY 143. PRISONERS’ DILEMMA 144. QUASI-STATE 145. RATIONALITY

141. 
     Pre-emption: Pre-emption is the use of military force by one state or actor against another in order to prevent an imminent attack. Pre-emption is often used as a justification for the use of military force in international relations, although it is also a controversial concept. Some argue that pre-emption can be necessary to protect national security, while others argue that it can lead to unintended consequences and escalation of conflict.
     
142. 
     Preventive Diplomacy: Preventive diplomacy is a type of diplomatic action aimed at preventing the escalation of conflict or the outbreak of violence between states or actors. Preventive diplomacy can take many forms, including conflict resolution, peace-building, and crisis management, and it is often seen as an alternative to the use of military force. Preventive diplomacy is seen as an important tool for maintaining peace and stability in the international system, and it is often used by international organizations such as the United Nations.
     
143. 
     Prisoners' Dilemma: The Prisoners' Dilemma is a classic example from game theory that illustrates the problem of cooperation between rational actors. The scenario involves two individuals who are arrested for a crime and are being held in separate cells. They are each offered a deal by the authorities: if one confesses and the other stays silent, the confessor will receive a reduced sentence while the other will receive a long sentence. If both confess, they will both receive a medium sentence. If both stay silent, they will both receive a light sentence. The Prisoners' Dilemma highlights the tension between cooperation and self-interest, and it has been used to analyze a wide range of international problems, including disarmament, arms control, and climate change.
     
144. 
     Quasi-State: A quasi-state is a political entity that has some of the characteristics of a state, but does not meet all of the criteria for statehood. Quasi-states are often territories that are seeking independence or recognition, but have not yet been recognized as independent states by the international community. Quasi-states can also refer to territories that are under the jurisdiction of another state, but have a significant degree of autonomy and self-government.
     
145. 
     Rationality: Rationality refers to the idea that individuals and states make decisions based on reason and self-interest. In international relations, rationality is often used as an assumption in various theories and models, such as realism and neoliberalism. The assumption of rationality is based on the idea that states and individuals will act in their own best interests, and that they will make decisions based on a cost-benefit analysis of available options. This idea has been challenged by other approaches to international relations, which argue that states and individuals are not always rational and that they can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including emotions, culture, and ideology.
     

111. MARXISM 112. MANDATES SYSTEM 113. MERCANTILISM 114. MERCENARY 115. MISPERCEPTION

111. 
     Marxism: Marxism is a political and economic philosophy that was developed by Karl Marx in the 19th century. It is based on the idea that society is divided into two classes: the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who are exploited by the bourgeoisie. Marxism argues that the proletariat will eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist society based on collective ownership of the means of production. In international relations, Marxist approaches focus on the role of capitalism and imperialism in shaping the global system.
     
112. 
     Mandates System: The Mandates System was a system established by the League of Nations after World War I to administer territories that were previously under the control of the defeated powers. The mandates were intended to provide a transitional period of governance, in which the mandates would be prepared for eventual independence. The Mandates System was seen as a way of balancing the interests of the mandates and the administering powers, but it was criticized for being dominated by the interests of the administering powers.
     
113. 
     Mercantilism: Mercantilism is an economic theory that was popular in Europe in the 16th to 18th centuries. It is based on the idea that wealth is created by accumulating gold and silver, and that states should seek to maximize exports and minimize imports in order to accumulate precious metals. Mercantilist policies often included regulations on trade and the promotion of domestic industries. In international relations, mercantilism is often associated with early forms of state power and the pursuit of national self-interest.
     
114. 
     Mercenary: A mercenary is an individual who is hired to perform military services for a foreign state or entity. Mercenaries are often used in situations where the hiring state does not have the military capability to carry out a particular mission, or where it is politically sensitive to use its own military. Mercenaries have a long history in international relations, but they are also controversial and have been criticized for their lack of accountability and their potential to exacerbate conflicts.
     
115. 
     Misperception: Misperception is a term used to describe a situation where individuals or states have inaccurate or incomplete information about the actions, intentions, or capabilities of other actors. Misperception can have significant consequences in international relations, as it can lead to misunderstandings and miscalculations that can escalate into conflict. In order to avoid misperception, it is important for actors in international relations to have clear and accurate information about each other and to communicate effectively.
     

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146. RECOGNITION 147. REGIONALISM 148. RECIPROCITY 149. REFUGEES 150. REGIME

146. 
     Recognition: In the context of international relations, recognition refers to the formal acknowledgement by one state of the sovereignty and legitimacy of another state. It implies the acceptance of a state as a member of the international community with all the rights and obligations that come with it. For example, the recognition of the People's Republic of China as the legitimate government of China by the United States in 1979.
     
147. 
     Regionalism: Regionalism refers to the trend of states or countries in a particular region to work together and cooperate in various fields such as trade, security, culture, and environmental protection. For example, the European Union is a classic example of regionalism, where the member states have integrated their economies and cooperated in various fields.
     
148. 
     Reciprocity: Reciprocity is a principle of international relations that refers to the mutual exchange of privileges or benefits between states. It is often used in the context of trade agreements, where countries agree to provide each other with preferential treatment in exchange for similar treatment. For example, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a reciprocal agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
     
149. 
     Refugees: A refugee is a person who has been forced to flee their home country due to conflict, persecution, or other reasons and cannot return due to fear of danger. The refugee crisis has become a major issue in international relations, with millions of people displaced globally. For example, the Syrian refugee crisis is one of the largest and most complex refugee crises in the world, with millions of people displaced both within Syria and across the region.
     
150. 
     Regime: In international relations, the term regime refers to a specific type of government or political system. It is used to describe the system of rule, laws, and institutions that govern a country, as well as the actors and processes involved in making and implementing decisions. For example, the authoritarian regime in North Korea is a one-party state with a strong central government and limited political freedoms.
     

151. REGIONAL TRADE BLOCS 152. RELATIVE GAINS/ABSOLUTE GAINS 153. RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT (R2P) 154. ROGUE STATE 155. SECESSION

151. 
     Regional Trade Blocs: Regional trade blocs are groups of countries that have formed a regional agreement to reduce barriers to trade and increase economic cooperation among the member countries. These agreements are often aimed at increasing trade, investment, and economic integration among member countries. For example, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada, and Mexico is a regional trade bloc.
     
152. 
     Relative Gains/Absolute Gains: In international relations, relative gains refer to the comparison of the benefits that a state or country gains from an agreement relative to its position before the agreement. Absolute gains refer to the overall benefits that a state or country gains from an agreement, regardless of its position before the agreement. For example, in a trade agreement, a country may focus more on absolute gains if the agreement will result in overall benefits for the country, while a country may focus more on relative gains if the agreement will result in benefits relative to its position before the agreement.
     
153. 
     Responsibility to Protect (R2P): The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a principle of international relations that states have a responsibility to protect their populations from mass atrocities such as genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. The principle was adopted by the United Nations in 2005 and is based on the idea that sovereignty is not a license to kill or abuse populations. For example, the international community's response to the humanitarian crisis in Syria has been criticized for not fully implementing the R2P principle.
     
154. 
     Rogue State: A rogue state is a term used to describe a state that is seen as acting outside of the norms of international behavior and is considered a threat to international peace and stability. Rogue states are often accused of supporting terrorism, developing weapons of mass destruction, and violating human rights. For example, North Korea has been often described as a rogue state due to its nuclear weapons program and human rights abuses.
     
155. 
     Secession: Secession refers to the withdrawal of a region or territory from the control of a larger state to form a separate, independent state. In international relations, secession is often a contentious issue and can result in conflict, as seen in the case of the breakup of the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s. For example, the Scottish independence referendum in 2014 was a secessionist movement, where Scotland voted on whether to become an independent state separate from the United Kingdom.
     

156. SECURITY 157. SECURITY DILEMMA 158. SELF-DETERMINATION 159. SELF-HELP 160. SOVEREIGNTY

156. 
     Security: In international relations, security refers to the protection of a state's independence, territorial integrity, and national interests from external threats. Security can refer to a range of issues, including military security, economic security, energy security, and environmental security. For example, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is a military alliance established to ensure the collective defense of its member states.
     
157. 
     Security Dilemma: The security dilemma is a concept in international relations that refers to the situation where efforts by one state to increase its security can lead to decreased security for other states. This can happen when one state's actions to increase its security, such as building up its military, lead other states to feel threatened and respond by increasing their own military capabilities, creating a vicious cycle of escalating military buildups. For example, the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War is an example of a security dilemma.
     
158. 
     Self-Determination: Self-determination is a principle in international relations that states that people have the right to determine their own political status and to freely pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. The principle is often used to support the idea of national independence and the right of a people to determine their own government. For example, the independence movements in Catalonia and Scotland are based on the principle of self-determination.
     
159. 
     Self-Help: In international relations, self-help refers to the principle that states should rely on their own resources and capabilities to ensure their own security and well-being, rather than relying on external sources. This principle is based on the idea of sovereignty and that states have the right to take action to protect their own interests. For example, the United States has a policy of self-help, which emphasizes its responsibility to ensure its own security and well-being through its own resources and capabilities.
     
160. 
     Sovereignty: Sovereignty is a principle in international relations that states that a government has the supreme and final authority within its own territory, without interference from other states or international organizations. It is the core principle of the modern state system and is based on the idea that each state has the right to govern itself without external interference. For example, the sovereignty of a state like North Korea is often challenged by the international community due to its human rights abuses and nuclear weapons program.
     

161. STATE 162. WELFARE STATE 163. TERRITORIAL STATE 164. TRADING STATE 165. COMPETITION STATE

161. 
     State: A state is a sovereign political entity that has control over a defined territory and its population. A state is characterized by a monopoly of legitimate use of force, a defined and controlled territory, a permanent population, and a system of governance. States are the primary actors in international relations and are responsible for maintaining their own security and representing their interests in international affairs.
     
162. 
     Welfare State: A welfare state is a type of state that provides for the welfare of its citizens through various social programs and services, such as health care, education, and unemployment benefits. The goal of a welfare state is to ensure the well-being and security of its citizens, especially those in need. For example, countries like Sweden and Norway are often considered welfare states due to their comprehensive social welfare systems.
     
163. 
     Territorial State: A territorial state is a state that is defined primarily by its control over a defined territory, rather than its control over a particular ethnic or national group. This is the most common form of state in the modern state system and is based on the principle of sovereignty. For example, the United States is a territorial state, as its government has control over a defined territory and its population.
     
164. 
     Trading State: A trading state is a state that places a strong emphasis on international trade as a means of promoting economic growth and development. Trading states often have policies that encourage exports and reduce barriers to trade, such as tariffs and trade agreements. For example, countries like China and Singapore are considered trading states due to their focus on international trade and their openness to foreign investment.
     
165. 
     Competition State: A competition state is a state that views international relations as a competition between states for power and influence. Competition states may focus on maximizing their own power and resources, rather than cooperation and compromise with other states. For example, some realist perspectives in international relations argue that international relations are fundamentally competitive, with states constantly seeking to maximize their power and influence.
     

166. DEVELOPMENTAL STATE 167. STATE-CENTRISM 168. STATE-SYSTEM 169. SUB-SYSTEM 170. SAFE HAVEN

166. 
     Developmental State: A developmental state is a state that prioritizes economic development as a means of promoting national growth and prosperity. Developmental states often have strong, centralized governments that play a active role in promoting and directing economic growth, often through state-led investment and planning. For example, countries like South Korea and Taiwan are often considered developmental states due to the role of the state in promoting economic development during the 20th century.
     
167. 
     State-Centrism: State-centrism is a perspective in international relations that emphasizes the importance of states as the primary actors in international affairs. This perspective views states as sovereign entities with the right to pursue their own interests and engage in international relations without interference. State-centrism is a cornerstone of the modern state system and is based on the principle of sovereignty.
     
168. 
     State-System: The state-system is the international system composed of sovereign states that engage in international relations. The modern state-system emerged in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries and has since become the dominant form of political organization in the world. The state-system is based on the principle of sovereignty, which states that each state has the right to govern itself without interference from other states or international organizations.
     
169. 
     Sub-System: A sub-system is a smaller group of states within the larger state-system that interact with each other in a more integrated and cooperative manner than with other states in the system. Sub-systems can be based on geographical proximity, shared cultural or historical ties, or shared economic interests. For example, the European Union is a sub-system of the state-system, as its member states interact with each other in a more integrated and cooperative manner than with other states outside the EU.
     
170. 
     Safe Haven: In international relations, a safe haven is a territory that provides refuge or protection for individuals or groups fleeing persecution or conflict. Safe havens can be established by states, international organizations, or non-state actors. The concept is closely related to the principles of asylum and refugee protection, and is based on the idea that individuals and groups have the right to seek protection from persecution or harm. For example, countries like Canada and Sweden have long-standing traditions of providing safe haven for refugees and asylum seekers.
     

171. SANCTIONS 172. STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (SAP) 173. STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE 174. SUPERPOWER 175. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

171. 
     Sanctions: Sanctions are a form of economic pressure applied by one or more states or international organizations against another state in order to achieve a specific political or economic outcome. Sanctions can include measures such as restrictions on trade, investment, financial transactions, or travel. Sanctions are often used as a means of encouraging a state to change its behavior or comply with international law and norms. For example, the United States and the European Union have imposed sanctions on countries like Iran and North Korea in an effort to encourage them to comply with international norms regarding weapons of mass destruction and human rights.
     
172. 
     Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP): A Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) is a set of economic reforms implemented by a state or a group of states in order to address economic imbalances and improve economic performance. SAPs are often imposed on developing countries as a condition of receiving financial assistance from international organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The reforms included in a SAP can include measures such as reducing government spending, privatizing state-owned enterprises, and liberalizing trade and investment.
     
173. 
     Structural Violence: Structural violence refers to the ways in which social, economic, and political structures create conditions that lead to widespread suffering and harm, even in the absence of direct physical violence. Structural violence is often perpetuated by systemic inequalities and institutionalized discrimination, and can take many forms, including poverty, unequal access to health care, and lack of educational opportunities. Structural violence is often a root cause of conflict and can perpetuate cycles of violence and suffering over time.
     
174. 
     Superpower: A superpower is a state that has significant military, economic, and political power and influence in the world. Superpowers are often considered to be the dominant actors in international affairs and have the ability to shape global events and policies. During the 20th century, the United States and the Soviet Union were considered superpowers, as they wielded significant military and economic power and exerted a great deal of influence over world events.
     
175. 
     Sustainable Development: Sustainable development is a concept that seeks to balance economic development with environmental protection and social equality. The idea is that economic development should not come at the expense of the environment or social well-being, but should instead be pursued in a way that protects the earth's resources and promotes social justice. Sustainable development is often seen as a key goal for international development efforts, as it seeks to promote economic growth and poverty reduction in a way that is environmentally responsible and socially equitable.
     

181. TORTURE 182. TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS 183. UNILATERALISM 184. UNIPOLARITY 185. WAR

181. 
     Torture: Torture is the intentional use of severe physical or psychological pain or suffering to extract information or as punishment. Torture is considered a violation of human rights and is illegal under international law. Torture is widely condemned by the international community and is considered a crime against humanity when it is systematic or widespread. The use of torture is often associated with authoritarian regimes and has been used by governments and non-state actors to suppress dissent and intimidate populations.
     
182. 
     Tragedy of the Commons: The tragedy of the commons is an economic concept that refers to the depletion of shared resources through overuse. The idea is that when a resource is open to everyone, each individual has an incentive to use as much of the resource as possible, even if it results in the depletion of the resource for everyone. The tragedy of the commons can occur with common-pool resources like fisheries, forests, and water systems, where overuse by one person can reduce the availability of the resource for others.
     
183. 
     Unilateralism: Unilateralism is a foreign policy approach in which a state makes decisions and takes actions independently of other states or international organizations. Unilateralism is often associated with a strong emphasis on national sovereignty and a belief that a state should act in its own interests, regardless of the opinions or interests of other states. Unilateralism is sometimes criticized for leading to a fragmented and unpredictable international system, as states act in their own interests without considering the broader impact of their actions on the international community.
     
184. 
     Unipolarity: Unipolarity is a term used to describe the international system when there is a single dominant state that has significant military, economic, and political power and influence. Unipolarity is often used to describe the international system after the fall of the Soviet Union, when the United States emerged as the world's sole superpower. In a unipolar system, the dominant state has the ability to shape global events and policies, and other states are often limited in their ability to influence the international system.
     
185. 
     War: War is a large-scale conflict between states or groups of states that involves the use of organized military forces. Wars can result from a variety of causes, including disputes over territory, political ideology, or economic resources. Wars often result in widespread destruction, loss of life, and displacement of populations, and can have lasting effects on the international system and individual states. Wars can also lead to significant changes in the balance of power in the international system, as the outcome of a war can result in the rise or fall of states and the emergence of new political and economic systems.
     

186. WAR CRIME 187. WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION 188. WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT (WID) 189. WORLD-SYSTEM THEORY 190. WESTPHALIA, PEACE OF (1648)

186. 
     War Crime: War crimes are serious violations of international humanitarian law committed during armed conflicts. War crimes can include acts such as the killing of civilians, the mistreatment of prisoners of war, the destruction of civilian property, and the use of banned weapons. War crimes are considered to be among the most serious crimes under international law, and those responsible can be held accountable by international tribunals or national courts. The concept of war crimes is central to the rules and norms of international humanitarian law, which aims to minimize the harm to civilians and other non-combatants during armed conflicts.
     
187. 
     Weapons of Mass Destruction: Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) are weapons capable of causing widespread destruction and loss of life. The term is typically used to refer to nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. WMDs are often seen as a significant threat to international security, as their use can result in mass casualties and have long-lasting environmental, economic, and political impacts. The proliferation of WMDs is a major concern for the international community, and there are a number of international treaties and agreements aimed at limiting the spread of these weapons.
     
188. 
     Women in Development (WID): Women in Development (WID) is a approach to development that recognizes the crucial role of women in the development process. WID prioritizes the inclusion of women in development programs and policies, and recognizes that gender equality is essential for sustainable development. WID seeks to address the systemic barriers that limit women's participation in the development process and to ensure that women's needs and perspectives are integrated into development initiatives. WID is now largely replaced by Gender and Development (GAD) approach, which puts more emphasis on the understanding of gender as a social construct that shapes unequal power relations between men and women.
     
189. 
     World-System Theory: World-system theory is an approach to understanding the global political-economic system that emerged in the late 20th century. World-system theory argues that the world is divided into core, peripheral, and semi-peripheral states, with core states being the most economically developed and powerful states and peripheral states being the least developed and economically dependent. World-system theory also argues that the global political-economic system is driven by the accumulation of capital in the core states, with the exploitation of peripheral states providing the resources and markets necessary for the accumulation of capital.
     
190. 
     Peace of Westphalia (1648): The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and brought an end to the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. The Peace of Westphalia marked a major turning point in European history, as it established the principle of sovereignty, which is the idea that each state has the right to govern itself without interference from other states. The Peace of Westphalia also marked the beginning of the modern state system, as it recognized the independence of individual states and established the principle of non-intervention, which is the idea that states should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states.
     

191. WORLD SOCIETY 192. WORLD ORDER 193. ZERO-SUM

191. 
     World Society: World society refers to the globally interconnected and interdependent social, cultural, economic, and political system that exists today. World society is characterized by the spread of shared norms, values, and institutions, as well as the interconnectedness of economic and political systems. The concept of world society highlights the growing interconnectedness of people, organizations, and countries, as well as the emergence of global issues that require collective action by the international community.
     
192. 
     World Order: World order refers to the political and economic arrangements that govern international relations among states. World order can include formal and informal international institutions, such as the United Nations, regional organizations, and international treaties and agreements. It can also refer to the norms, values, and rules that shape international behavior, such as the principles of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states and the protection of human rights. World order is constantly evolving in response to changes in the global political and economic landscape.
     
193. 
     Zero-sum: Zero-sum is a concept in game theory and economics that refers to situations in which one person's gain is exactly balanced by another person's loss. In a zero-sum game, the total amount of resources available is fixed, and any gain by one player must come at the expense of another player. In international relations, zero-sum thinking is often associated with the idea that the interests of one state or group of states are in direct opposition to the interests of another state or group of states, and that one side's gain must come at the other side's expense. This type of thinking is often seen as a barrier to cooperation and collaboration in international affairs.