The Digital Transformation Playbook: Rethink Your Business for the Digital Age

Strategy Moving as Fast as Your Business (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2013), 
27–51.
21. Aaron Levie, Twitter post, November 18, 2013, 12:16 a.m., http://twitter.com 
/levie/status/402304366234718208. In his original tweet, Levie spoke about “products,” 
not “businesses.” But I hope he would agree the point remains just as true. 
22. Eric Von Hippel, “Lead Users: A Source of Novel Product Concepts,” Manage-
ment Science 32 (1986): 7. doi:10.1287/mnsc.32.7.791.
23. Mark Hurst, e-mail interview with author, August 28, 2015. In his book 
Customers Included, Hurst presents trenchant examples of the benefits of direct cus-
tomer observation and the failures that result when businesses don’t integrate it into 
their planning. Customers Included: How to Transform Products, Companies, and the 
World—with a Single Step, 2nd ed. (New York: Creative Good, 2015).
7. Mastering Disruptive Business Models
1. Michael Treacy and Fred Wiersema wrote that businesses compete by provid-
ing superior customer value in one of three value disciplines: operational excellence, 
customer intimacy, or product leadership. “Customer Intimacy and Other Value 
Disciplines,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1993, https://hbr.org/1993/01 
/customer-intimacy-and-other-value-disciplines.
2. W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne, Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create Uncon-
tested Market Space and Make Competition Irrelevant (Boston: Harvard Business Review 
Press, 2005), 12–18.

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7 . M A S T E R I N G D I S R U P T I V E B U S I N E S S M O D E L S

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3. Marc Andreessen, “Why Software Is Eating the World,” Wall Street Journal, 
August 20, 2011, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405311190348090457651225091
5629460.
4. “Craigslist Fact Sheet,” accessed November 16, 2014, http://www.craigslist.org 
/about/factsheet.
5. Robert Safian, “The World’s Most Innovative Companies 2014,” Fast Company, 
2014, http://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2014/.
6. Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism (Princeton, 
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), 349.
7. Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: The Revolutionary Book That 
Will Change the Way You Do Business (New York: HarperBusiness, 2011).
8. Ben Thompson, “What Clayton Christensen Got Wrong,” Stratechery (blog), 
September 22, 2013, http://stratechery.com/2013/clayton-christensen-got-wrong/.
9. Jena McGregor, “Clayton Christensen’s Innovation Brain,” Businessweek, June 15, 2007, 
http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/stories/2007–06–15/clayton-christensens-innovation 
-brainbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice.
10. Larissa MacFarquhar, “When Giants Fail,” New Yorker, May 14, 2012, http://
www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/05/14/when-giants-fail.
11. A valuable survey of the varying definitions and applications of business models 
is provided by Christoph Zott, Raphael Amit, and Lorenzo Massa in “The Business 
Model: Recent Developments and Future Research” (working paper, IESE Business 
School, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain, 2010), http://www.iese.edu/research 
/pdfs/DI-0862-E.pdf.
12. Alexander Osterwalder and Yves Pigneur, Business Model Generation: A Hand-
book for Visionaries, Game Changers, and Challengers (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2010).
13. Mark W. Johnson, Clayton M. Christensen, and Henning Kagermann, 
“Reinventing Your Business Model,” Harvard Business Review, December 2008, https://
hbr.org/2008/12/reinventing-your-business-model.
14. Ibid.
15. Alexander Osterwalder, Yves Pigneur, Gregory Bernarda, Alan Smith, and Trish 
Papadakos, Value Proposition Design: How to Create Products and Services Customers