The list of self-study toipcs I. Make a рresentation on the given toрics and рresent it

What is a Comparative?
Comparative Adjectives are words used to describe a noun by comparing it to another noun. We usually think of ‘er’ words like bigger or smaller, but they can be a little trickier than that.
The way we form comparative adjectives is based on the number of syllables in the adjective and whether or not the adjective ends with the letter ‘y’.
What is a Superlative?
Superlative Adjectives are words used to describe a noun when comparing it to two or more nouns to the highest or lowest degree. Think: big, bigger, biggest, or small, smaller, smallest.
Like with comparative adjectives, it’s not always as simple as adding ‘est’. The number of syllables and whether or not the adjective ends with the letter ‘y’ also help us determine how to form a superlative adjective.
One Syllable Adjectives
Let’s look at a chart showing the comparative and superlative forms of the word for the most basic one syllable adjectives, where we add ‘er’ for the comparative and ‘est’ for the superlative. *Note: when the adjective follows the CVC, or consonant, vowel, consonant spelling, the final consonant is doubled.
ADJECTIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
Big------- Bigger-------Biggest
Tall-------Taller--------Tallest
Small------Smaller-------Smallest
Hot-------Hotter-------Hottest
Comparative Adjectives:
I am faster than my friend.
Arizona is hotter than Alaska.
Superlative Adjectives:
She is the tallest student.
That was the shortest movie in the series
. Notice the other words around the comparative and superlative adjectives. Most comparatives are followed by ‘than’, and most superlatives follow the word ‘the’.
Two Syllable Adjectives
Now let’s look at a chart showing the comparative and superlative forms of the word for adjectives with two syllables. Comparative adjectives with two syllables can be formed by making the ‘er’ ending or by adding the words ‘more’ or ‘less’ before the adjective.
For superlative adjectives, you make the ‘est’ ending but use the word ‘most’ or ‘least’ instead of ‘more’ or ‘less’.
ADJECTIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
Happy-------Happier-------Happiest
Crazy-------Crazier-------Craziest
Nervous------More/Less Nervous-------Most/Least Nervous
Massive-------More/Less Massive-------Most/Least Massive
Quiet-------Quieter or More/Less Quiet------Quietest or Most/Least Quiet

Comparative Adjectives:

She tends to be less passive than her brother.
This quiz is simpler than the last one.
Superlative Adjectives:
Fall is the busiest shopping season.
This is the most rapid method of delivery.
Notice again how the comparative adjectives are followed by ‘than’, and superlative adjectives follow the word ‘the’.

Three or More Syllable Adjectives

The chart below shows the comparative and superlative forms of the word for adjectives that are three or more syllables long. In these cases, we always add ‘more’ or ‘less’ before a comparative adjective and ‘most’ or ‘least’ before a superlative adjective.

ADJECTIVE

COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
Mysterious-------More/Less Mysterious-------Most/Least Mysterious
Complicated------More/Less Complicated-------Most/Least Complicated
Wonderful------More/Less Wonderful------Most/Least Wonderful
Comparative Adjectives:
I tend to be more reluctant than my friends when trying new things.
The noise at the pool was less bothersome than the noise on the beach.
Superlative Adjectives:
Her second compilation was the most exceptional of them all.
Those were the least comfortable couches I have ever sat on.
Irregular Adjectives
When using comparative and superlative adjectives, it is important to note that there are a handful of irregular adjectives that don’t follow the rules above. The chart below shows these irregular adjectives along with their comparative and superlative forms.
ADJECTIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
Good--------Better--------Best
Bad or Ill-----Worse-----Worst
Little (Amount)-------Less-----Least
Far (Distance)------Farther------Farthest
Far (Extent)------Further------Furthest
Many or Much--------More-----Most

Comparative Adjectives:

I did better than the rest of my class on the final.
She ran farther in this race than she did in the last one.
Superlative Adjectives:
That was the best birthday present ever!
I bought the least expensive souvenir that I could find
Present perfect
The present perfect is a grammatical combination of the present tense and perfect aspect that is used to express a past event that has present consequences.[1] The term is used particularly in the context of English grammar to refer to forms like "I have finished". The forms are present because they use the present tense of the auxiliary verb have, and perfect because they use that auxiliary in combination with the past participle of the main verb. (Other perfect constructions also exist, such as the past perfect: "I had eaten.")
Analogous forms are found in some other languages, and they may also be described as present perfect; they often have other names such as the German Perfekt, the French passé composé and the Italian passato prossimo. They may also have different ranges of usage: in all three of the languages just mentioned, the forms in question serve as a general past tense, at least for completed actions.

In English, completed actions in many contexts are referred to using the simple past verb form rather than the present perfect. English also has a present perfect continuous (or present perfect progressive) form, which combines present tense with both perfect aspect and continuous (progressive) aspect: "I have been eating". The action is not necessarily complete; and the same is true of certain uses of the basic present perfect when the verb expresses a state or a habitual action: "I have lived here for five years."

Auxiliaries

In modern English, the auxiliary verb used to form the present perfect is always to have. A typical present perfect clause thus consists of the subject, the auxiliary have/has, and the past participle (third form) of main verb. Examples:

I have done so much in my life.

You have gone to school.
He has already arrived in America.
He has had child after child... (The Mask of Anarchy, Percy Shelley)
Lovely tales that we have heard or read... (Endymion, John Keats)
Early Modern English used both to have and to be as perfect auxiliaries. The usage differs in that to have expressed emphasis in the process of the action that was completed, whereas to be put the emphasis in the final state after the action is completed. Examples of the second can be found in older texts:

Madam, the Lady Valeria is come to visit you. (The Tragedy of Coriolanus, Shakespeare)

Vext the dim sea: I am become a name... (Ulysses, Tennyson)
I am become Time, destroyer of worlds. (Bhagavad Gita)
Pillars are fallen at thy feet... (Marius amid the Ruins of Carthage, Lydia Maria Child)
I am come in sorrow. (Lord Jim, Conrad)
I am come in my Father's name, and ye receive me not (John 5:43, The Bible)
In many other European languages, the equivalent of to have (e.g. German haben, French avoir, Italian avere) is used to form the present perfect (or their equivalent of the present perfect) for most or all verbs. However, the equivalent of to be (e.g. German sein, French être, Italian essere) serves as the auxiliary for other verbs in some languages, such as German, Dutch, Danish (but not Swedish or Norwegian), French, and Italian (but not Spanish or Portuguese). Generally, the verbs that take to be as an auxiliary are intransitive verbs denoting motion or change of state (e.g. to arrive, to go, to fall).
There Is and. There Are: How to Choose?

The choice between the phrases there is and there are at the beginning of a sentence is determined by the noun that follows it.

Use there is when the noun is singular (“There is a cat”). Use there are when the noun is plural (“There are two cats”).
Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your writing shines? Grammarly can check your spelling and save you from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever you write.

There is and there are

You probably know that the choice between is vs. are depends on a noun. In most sentences, the noun comes before the verb. But in sentences that begin with there is and there are, the noun comes later.

There is a cat on the porch.

In the sentence above, cat is singular, so it requires there is.

There are many opportunities to learn at this company.

In the sentence above, opportunities is plural, so it requires there are. (Don’t let the word many throw you off—concentrate on the noun.)

There is a number of vs.there are a number of

There are a number of unnamed stars in our galaxy? There is a number of unnamed stars in our galaxy? It’s difficult to tease out whether you should use is or are in a construction like this. The verb is being pulled toward there, number, and stars all at once.
Here’s a tip: Sentences that begin with There is/are a number of… are almost always wordier than they need to be. Your best bet is to rewrite it: Many stars in our galaxy are unnamed.
But if you really can’t rewrite it, you’ll have to make a choice. Use is if you want to emphasize the group; use are if you want to emphasize the individual members.
It’s the same with other collecting phrases, like a variety of.
There is a wide variety of flavors to choose from.
There are a variety of unique destinations we can visit.
There are a lot of
Use there are when you’re talking about “a lot” of something.
There are a lot of people in this elevator.
There is a lot of people in this elevator.
There is vs. there are with a series of items
When you’re making a list of things, sometimes there are sounds wrong:There are a kitchen, a living room, and a bedroom in my apartment.
There are sounds bad because the noun that follows it, kitchen, is singular. Even though you’re really talking about multiple things, (a kitchen, a living room, a bedroom), it’s often better to use the singular verb is in a construction like this.
There is a kitchen, a living room, and a bedroom in my apartment.
Some language commentators still insist on using are in sentences like this despite the awkwardness, but actual usage is extremely mixed. Remember, if the sentence sounds awkward either way, you can always rewrite it to avoid the “there is/are” problem altogether.
Formation
The present continuous is formed by the present tense form of be and the present participle (-ing form) of the verb.[3][4]
For example, you would write the verb work in the present continuous form by adding the -ing suffix to the verb and placing a present tense form of be (am, are, is) in front of it:[3]
I am working.
You are working.
She is working.
We are working.
They are working.
Uses
The present continuous is used in several instances. Its most common use is to describe something that is happening at the exact moment of speech:[3]
The boy is laughing.
This contrasts with the simple present, which is used to refer to something that occurs habitually (i.e. habits, unchanging situations, general truths, and fixed arrangements).[5][6]
The present continuous is also used to describe a temporary activity, even if it is not taking place at the exact moment of speech, or a temporary situation:[7]
They are working in Dubai.
I am writing a book.
I am living in Scotland until the end of the year.
This contrasts with permanent activities or situations, which are described using the simple present: I live on Main Street.
Present continuous can also describe an event planned in the future when combined with a time indicator for the future:
I am resitting my French exam on Tuesday.
When combined with always, but meaning often, the present continuous can be used to emphasize the frequency of an action in a humorous or hyperbolic way:[7][9]
My parents are always making me go to school!
She is always playing with that doll!
He is always eating chocolate!