Theme №2 Semasiology and Phraseology Semasiology. Types of word meaning. Change of meaning. Polysemy

English
Ukrainian
fox - a cunning or crafty person. sheep - a meek, unimaginative, or easily led person. dog - an ugly, boring, or crude person.	лис - хитрун, лукавець. вівця - покірна, ляклива людина. пес - погана, негідна людина, посіпака, вислуга.

Verbs denoting animal cries are used metaphorically with reference to human beings:

bark − (of a dog or other animal) 1. to utter an abrupt, explosive cry
2. to speak or cry out sharply or gruffly: a man who barks at his children (UA гавкати)
He reached for the ignition, then stopped and issued several hard barks of laughter: “Ha! Ha! Ha! Ha!” (King).


cackle - 1. to utter a shrill, broken sound or cry, as of a hen.
2. to chatter noisily; prattle, (UA кудкудакати)
He would cackle with laughter and caper, if any jest was made, or even if Frodo spoke kindly to him, and weep if Frodo rebuked him. (Tolkien).


5.4. Transference Based on Contiguity. Metonymy.
Metonymy is the transfer of name based on the association of contiguity. It is a universal device in which the name of one thing is changed for that of another, to which it is related by association of ideas, as having close relationship to one another, e.g. the chair may mean “the chairman”, the bar − “the lawyers”.
Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with much difficulty. The two objects may be associated together because they often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is easily accompanied by the image of the other; or they may be associated on the principle of cause and effect, of common function, of some material and an object which is made of it, etc.
Let us consider some cases of transference based on contiguity. The Old English adjective glad meant “bright, shining” (it was applied to the sun, to gold and precious stones, to shining armour, etc.). The later (and more modern) meaning “joyful” developed on the basis of the usual association (which is reflected in most languages) of light with joy (cf. with the Rus. светлое настроение; светло на душе).
The meaning of the adjective sad in Old English was “satisfied with food” (cf. with the UA. ситий) which is a word of the same Indo-European root). Later this meaning developed a connotation of a greater intensity of quality and came to mean “oversatisfied with food; having eaten too much”. Thus, the meaning of the adjective sad developed a negative evaluative connotation and now describes not a happy state of satisfaction but, on the contrary, the physical unease and discomfort of a person who has had too much to eat. The next shift of meaning was to transform the description of physical discomfort into one of spiritual discontent because these two states often go together. It was from this prosaic source that the modern meaning of sad “melancholy”, “sorrowful” developed, and the adjective describes now a purely emotional state. The two previous meanings (“satisfied with food” and “having eaten too much”) were ousted from the semantic structure of the word long ago.
The foot of a bed is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed, but the foot of a mountain got its name by another association: the foot of a mountain is its lowest part, so that the association here is founded on common position.
By the arms of an arm-chair we mean the place where the arms lie when one is setting in the chair, so that the type of association here is the same as in the foot of a bed. The leg of a bed (table, chair, etc.), though, is the part which serves as a support, the original meaning being “the leg of a man or animal”. The association that lies behind this development of meaning is the common function: a piece of furniture is supported by its legs just as living beings are supported by theirs.
The meaning of the noun hand realised in the context hand of a clock (watch) originates from the main meaning of this noun “part of human body”. It also developed due to the association of the common function: the hand of a clock points to the figures on the face of the clock, and one of the functions of human hand is also that of pointing to things.
Another meaning of hand realised in such contexts as factory hands, farm hands is based on another kind of association: strong, skilful hands are the most important feature that is required of a person engaged in physical labour (cf. with theUA. роботящі/працьовиті руки).
The adjective dull developed its meaning “not clear or bright” (as in a dull green colour; dull light; dull shapes) on the basis of the former meaning “deficient in eyesight”, and its meaning “not loud or distinct” (as in dull sounds) on the basis of the older meaning “deficient in hearing”. The association here was obviously that of cause and effect: to a person with weak eyesight all colours appear pale, and all shapes blurred; to a person with deficient hearing all sounds are indistinct.
The main (and oldest registered) meaning of the noun board was “a flat and thin piece of wood; a wooden plank”. On the basis of this meaning developed the meaning “table” which is now archaic. The association which underlay this semantic shift was that of the material and the object made from it: a wooden plank (or several planks) is an essential part of any table. This type of association is often found with nouns denoting clothes: e. g. a taffeta (“dress made of taffeta”); a mink (“mink coat”), a jersy (“knitted shirt or sweater”).
Meanings produced through transference based on contiguity sometimes originate from geographical or proper names. China in the sense of “dishes made of porcelain” originated from the name of the country which was believed to be the birthplace of porcelain.
Tweed −a coarse wool cloth got its name from the river Tweed and cheviot (another kind of wool cloth) from the Cheviot hills in England.
The name of a painter is frequently transferred onto one of his pictures: a Matisse — a painting by Matisse.
Consider the following examples: