Theme: Geoffrey Chaucer’s "Canterbury Tales" as a panorama of English society Contents: Introduction

Chapter I. Literature review and methods of the Geoffrey Chaucer’s “Canterbury Tales” as a panorama of English society
1.1. Literature review of the Geoffrey Chaucer’s “Canterbury Tales” as a panorama of English society
²In “The Franklin’s Tale,” Arveragus behaves in a manner (despite his outward description) in contrast to the often lustful, dramatic dynamics of the tradition and the laws outlined by Capellanus, revealing him as a representation of the institution of marriage and not a courtly lover as the audience is led to believe. Although Capellanus claims in his treatise “love rarely lasts when it is revealed” (Capellanus 6), which appears to support Arveragus’ desire for secrecy (the lovers promise to treat each other with equal respect, but Arveragus specifies this agreement only applies behind closed doors), the knight’s behavior contradicts the doctrines of courtly love throughout the tale — not just in relation to his marriage. In his “Treatise on Courtly Love,” Capellanus declares, “a real lover is always fearful . . . . True jealousy always increases the feeling of love. . . . A slight suspicion incites a lover to suspect the worst of his beloved” (Capellanus 6,7). Yet, following his lengthy quest, Arveragus expresses no such emotion; instead, the Franklin describes the knight’s surety in Dorigen’s obedience and faith to the principles of their marriage, stating: “No thyng list hym to been ymaginatyf,/If any wight [man] hadde spoke, whil he was oute/To hire of love; he hadde of it no doute./He noght entendeth to no swich matere” (Chaucer ll. 1094-1097).1 He fully trusts the orthodox system of marriage and the contract-like vows that he and Dorigen exchanged with one another. Despite this, he is described in lofty, romantic detail, with “[health] and [great] honour,/as he that was of [chivalry] . . . the [lively] knight, the worthy man of armes” (Chaucer ll. 1087-88, 1092); however, although the knight outwardly aligns with the expectations of a courtly lover, the Franklin’s description of Arveragus is that of a man tied to tradition, concealed under the flowers of a courtly guise.
Furthermore, when Arveragus leaves, Dorigen mourns his absence wholeheartedly, distraught in every aspect, as Capellanus describes the distance of a courtly love: “the true lover is continuously obsessed with the image of his beloved” (Capellanus 7). However, because of the lack of Arveragus’ perspective due to his absence, as Mandel describes, the “pole of consciousness in the story . . . [is] predominantly Dorigen’s” (Mandel 281); consequently, as Mandel further states, “the appurtenances of courtly love serve merely to adorn a tale that is actually not about a pair of courtly lovers but about a married woman who wants to deflect the unwanted advances of a young man who approaches her under the banner of courtly love” (Mandel 281). As a result, although Dorigen’s love for her husband aligns with the principles of courtly love in Capellanus’ treatise, Arveragus does not return the same devotion, and their marriage is devoid of the courtly love that the Franklin’s narration mimics around their romance.

Similarly, in Troilus and Criseyde, Pandarus does not operate under the same principles of courtly love that the poem constructs and dramatizes around the lovers’ narrative; instead, he works fraudulently, constructing their relationship through measures in direct contrast to the chivalric doctrine and instead aligning himself with tradition. In an effort to convince Troilus to reveal his love for Criseyde, Pandarus demands that the prince reveals his secret, consequently attempting to force Troilus out of the courtly love tradition. He exclaims “thef, how shalt hyre name telle,” physically shaking Troilus until the warrior finally admits “thanne is my swete fo called Criseyde!” (Chaucer pg. 55, ll. 869-875).2 In “A Treatise on Courtly Love,” Capellanus states “love rarely lasts when it is revealed” (Capellanus 3); however, Pandarus quite violently extracts this secret from Troilus in the very beginning of the poem, acting outside of the courtly love doctrine despite his direct role in orchestrating the “chivalric” relationship.

He acts similarly in influencing Criseyde, who is a widow, bidding her to free herself from the confines of her status. Because of her widowhood, Criseyde wears black to signify her status (Chaucer pg. 25, l. 309); likewise, according to Capellanus’ treatise, widows should maintain their mourning and dress for at least two years until returning to normal life: "two years of mourning for a dead lover are prescribed for surviving lovers” (Capellanus 3). Despite this requirement, Pandarus urges Criseyde to overcome her grief and be happy, demanding that she remove her “warning clothes” that signify widowhood: “. . . cast youre widewes [widow’s] habit [clothing] to mischaunce [to the devil]” (Chaucer pg. 75, l. 222). He further mentions to Troilus that because Criseyde is a widow, she will/should marry again, as she would not be able to resist the desires of love (Chaucer 61, ll. 974-980). Consequently, through his disrespect of widowhood in the courtly love doctrine, Pandarus contradicts the chivalric dynamic’s principles and further distances himself from the tradition.

Furthermore, Pandarus forces Criseyde to be a part of the courtly love relationship with Troilus even when she appears to be uncertain, stretching to great lengths of manipulation in order to essentially trap his niece. According to Capellanus, “no one can love who is not driven to do so by the power of love” (Capellanus 3); however, Pandarus functions outside of this tenant throughout the poem, constructing a false courtly love dynamic through deceit — not love. As Helterman describes, “. . . Chaucer’s Pandarus not only repeats the charge [of Troilus’ inevitable death should Criseyde not love him] four times, but also adds his own certain death to Criseyde’s crime in not loving Troilus” (Helterman 19). Pandarus further demonstrates this dissent from the courtly love tradition by physically manipulating Criseyde as well, forcing Troilus’ letter into her dress when she hesitates to take it: “‘refuse it naught’ quod he, and hente hire faste,/And in hire bosom the letter down he thraste” (Chaucer pg. 125, ll. 1154-55).3 Determined to make the relationship work despite the will of Criseyde, the object of affection, Pandarus commands and controls his niece on multiple levels, illuminating the manufactured nature of their alleged courtly love (which is not based in love at all, but on lies).

During his continuous manipulation, Pandarus calls on proverbs and traditional wisdom to influence the carefully-designed lovers. In effort to convince Criseyde to love Troilus, he threatens that her beauty will fade with age, so she must act quickly: “to late ywar, quod Beaute, when it paste;/and Elde daunteth Daunger at the laste” (83, l. 398).4 The use of this proverb ties Pandarus to tradition, as he uses the wisdom of the past to persuade Criseyde — this allusion contrasts the potentially controversial, unorthodox teachings of courtly love. Russell acknowledges that courtly love was considered a “heresy” by some religious scholars, as the late-eleventh century French concept was “a revolutionary world view in that it placed human love at the center of the universe” (Russell 31) in contrast to the orthodox religious doctrines. Accordingly, Pandarus also references proverbs from the Bible (in this quote, specifically Ecclesiastes 4:10), a deliberate, meaningful choice by Chaucer as the setting of the poem predates the creation of Christianity: “the wise seith, ‘Wo him that is allone,/For and he falle, he hath non help to ryse” (Chaucer pg. 47, ll. 694-95).5 As Helterman explains, “with his verbalizing, Pandarus forces Troilus [and Criseyde] into a rigid formalism and wordiness that militates against the intimacy of true love” (Helterman 18). Rooted in tradition, Pandarus’ teachings attempt to create a chivalrous relationship reflective of a perfect courtly love, but actually construct its antithesis: a “mask of love” (Helterman 14).

In “Parliament of Fowls,” moreover, traditional love is represented through the instinctual mating rituals that ultimately result in harmony, guided by Nature. Following his walk through the paradisal garden, the narrator encounters the goddess Nature and her gathering of birds of all species, separated into hierarchies of their own, where they have gathered to choose mates — through this process guided by Nature, they are guaranteed harmony. The narrator describes “bifore the noble goddesse Nature,/. . . eche of hem did his besy cure/Benignely to chese or for to take,/By hir accord, his formel or his make” (Chaucer ll. 368-71)6. Nature bestows her creatures “with pleasaunce [desire]” to choose their mates (Chaucer l. 389); as Peck states, “this urging manifests itself as love impulse” (Peck 295). The fowl of lower classes follow this natural dynamic, each selecting their mates in a traditional fashion, guided by this authentic instinct. At this point, though, the romantic tone of the piece is interrupted, and “tension between love and politics determines the poem’s plot” (Peck 296); courtly love is introduced to the narrative.

Ultimately, the courted female eagle in the poem decides to wait and does not accept any of the suitors’ chivalric offers, instead remaining true to the wishes of Nature and traditional, authentic love. She states that she will not serve Venus or Cupid in a true fashion yet, because she did not find love: “I wol nought serven Venus ne Cupyde/For soothe as yet, by no manere wey” (ll. 652-53)7, suggesting that the chivalric/courtly love boasting between the male eagles was not true love at all, despite their steep promises. Following her announcement, the birds who found mates through natural, traditional love process celebrate, while the royal eagles who failed are left out: “And whan this week al brought was to an ende,/To every foule Nature yaf his make/By even accords, and on hir wey they wende./And, Lord, the blisse and joy that they make!” (ll. 666-669)8. This immense celebration underscores the bliss that true love, achieved through the natural process that Nature designed, would bring to authentic lovers. By preventing the courtly love dynamic from being completed, the poem “resists the kind of closure that its structures lead us to expect” (Williams 172), and highlights the unfulfillable nature of the chivalric concept. Through this juxtaposition between the artificiality of the courtly love tradition and the genuineness of natural love, “. . . Dame Nature looks after the larger issues despite the squabbles, keeping accord possible even amidst man’s caprice” (Peck 302), and thus remains the most true force throughout the poem, indicating the resilience of tradition.