Thermal dynamics volume

THERMAL DYNAMICS VOLUME
PLAN:

1. 
   Sections of thermodynamics
   
2. 
   Fundamentals of thermodynamics
   
3. 
   Basic concepts of thermodynamics
   

Thermodynamics ( Greek θέρμη - "heat", δύναμις - "force" ^{[K 1]} ) is a branch of physics that studies the most general properties of macroscopic systems ^[3] and methods of energy transfer and transformation in such systems ^[4] .

In thermodynamics, states and processes are studied, for the description of which the concept of temperature can be introduced . Thermodynamics is a phenomenological science based on generalizations of experimental facts. The processes occurring in thermodynamic systems are described by macroscopic quantities ( temperature , pressure , concentrations of components), which are introduced to describe systems consisting of a large number of particles and are not applicable to individual molecules and atoms, in contrast, for example, to quantities introduced in mechanics or electrodynamics.
Modern phenomenological thermodynamics is a rigorous theory developed on the basis of several postulates. However, the connection of these postulates with the properties and laws of interaction of particles from which thermodynamic systems are built is given by statistical physics . Statistical physics also allows you to indicate the limits of applicability of thermodynamics and describe such phenomena as, for example, fluctuations ^[5] .
The laws of thermodynamics are of a general nature and do not depend on the specific details of the structure of matter at the atomic level. Therefore, thermodynamics is successfully applied in a wide range of issues of science and technology, such as energy , heat engineering , phase transitions, chemical reactions , transport phenomena, and even black holes . Thermodynamics is important for various fields of physics and chemistry, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering , cell biology , biomedical engineering , materials science and finds its application even in such areas as economics
History 
People are able to directly feel cold and heat , and the intuitive idea of ​​​​temperature as the degree of heating of bodies arose long before the corresponding scientific concepts arose. The development of scientific knowledge about heat began with the invention of an instrument capable of measuring temperature - a thermometer . It is believed that the first thermometers were made by Galileo at the end of the 16th century ^[8] [9] . In the 18th century, thermometers were significantly improved and a constant scale was built ^[10] . In 1744, academician Richman separated the amount of heat from temperature in his report, and subsequently conducted a series of studies to determine the heat capacity of various substances ^[11] .
Thermodynamics arose as an empirical science about the main ways of converting the internal energy of bodies to perform mechanical work. The first steam engines appeared in the second half of the 18th century and heralded the advent of the Industrial Revolution . Scientists and engineers began to look for ways to increase their efficiency.
In 1779, Lambert's "Pyrometry" ^{[K 2]} described the experience of raising and lowering the temperature in the receiver of an air pump during piston movement. Adiabatic expansion and contraction were studied in greater detail by Darwin in 1788 and by Pict in 1798. In 1816, Laplace discovered a law showing the relationship between the speed of sound in air and specific heat capacity at constant pressure and at constant volume ^[12] .
In 1824, Sadi Carnot in his work "On the driving force of fire and on machines capable of developing this force" established the maximum efficiency of heat engines ^[13] [14] . It is generally accepted that thermodynamics as a science originates from this work, which for a long time remained unknown to contemporaries. However, Fourier's classic work on heat conduction, The Analytical Theory of Heat, was published in 1822 and outstripped not only the emergence of nonequilibrium thermodynamics, but also Carnot's work.
In the 40s of the 19th century, Mayer and Joule quantified the relationship between mechanical work and heat and formulated the universal law of conservation and transformation of energy. In the 1950s, Clausius and Kelvin systematized the knowledge accumulated by that time and introduced the concepts of entropy and absolute temperature.
At the end of the 19th century, phenomenological thermodynamics was developed in the works of Gibbs , who created the method of thermodynamic potentials, studied the general conditions of thermodynamic equilibrium, and established the laws of equilibrium of phases and capillary phenomena ^[15] .
In 1906, Nernst published a paper in which he formulated a theorem that later received his name and is known as the third law of thermodynamics.
The axiomatic foundations of thermodynamics were first formulated in a rigorous form in the works of Carathéodory in 1909