Uzbekistan state world languages university survey report

UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY

Portfolio

Subject: CDME
Group: 22_20
Student:Barno Djumanova
Teacher: Fayzullayeva Mukhayyokhon
UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY

SURVEY REPORT

Subject: EAP
Group: 22_20
Student: Madraximova Zarinabonu
Teacher: Fayzullayeva Muhayyoxon
§ 2. HYPERO-HYPONYMIC SERIES
The term "hyponymy" is not among the traditional terms of semantics and was created relatively recently by analogy with antonymy and synonymy. However, the type of relations between units of the lexico-semantic system of a language called by this term, based on their generic conceptual community, has been known for a long time and is recognized as one of the most important constitutive principles of the organization of the vocabulary of all languages. This is a relation of inclusion or domination, in which one word (it is called a hyperonym) denotes a class of entities that includes a class of entities designated by another word – a hyponym, and turns out to be broader in its meaning. There are quite a lot of sets of words related to each other by subordination and domination relationships in the lexical system. They form the so-called hyper-hyponymic series, or, according to H. Fillmore, taxonomy. A classic example of such structures in the lexico-semantic system is the designation of plants. Among the names of plants, the most general term plant stands out, 'plant', which is generic in relation to all other plant names. The names tree 'tree', bush 'bush', grass 'grass', flower 'flower', etc. act in relation to the generic name, or hyperonym, as subordinates associated with the designation of less broad classes of plants, their individual subspecies. In turn, they have a number of subordinate words - names of specific types of trees (birch 'birch', asp 'aspen', pine 'pine', etc.), flowers (tulip 'tulip', daffodil 'narcissus', rose 'rose', etc.), bushes, herbs, etc. - and correlate with them as hyperonyms and hyponyms related to the relationship of subordination. It is obvious that the presence of hyper-hyponymic relations takes place when in the semantics of the inclusion of words related to the relations, common semantic features are found that make up one of the compared values, and additional (at least one) features that distinguish one value from another of the compared values.The word tulip 'tulip' includes in its meaning the semantic features of the word plant 'plant' and the Semantic features of the word flower 'flower' clarifying it, and also contains a number of additional features that distinguish it from both the words named above and from all the names of other types of flowers. From this make-up it is clear that the hyperonym is broader in terms of its reference, or extensional, but already in terms of the content of the concept it fixes in comparison with the hyponym, i.e. already in terms of a set of attributes characterizing any entity, or intensional. The meaning of a hyperonym as a more generalized meaning specializes in the meanings of all its hyponyms. One hyperonym has as many hyponyms as the signs of the concept expressed by the hyperonym are specified and fixed in the lexical meanings of the word or words.

Along with the relations of subordination and domination in the hyperonymic series, there are also equality relations that are established between the hyponyms of one hyperonym. Such hyponyms are called sogiponyms, or equonyms, and differ in the differential signs highlighted in their meanings in the presence of some common semantic part. Among the names of flowers, the words tulip 'tulip', rose 'rose \ violet 'violet' and others are equonymous to each other.

These types of relationships can be easily represented in the form of formulas:

Xc(X + n) and (X + n) ∩ (X + m), of which the first one fixes the relation of hyponymy proper, and the second one fixes the relation of equonymy. The general scheme of these relations forms a hyponymic configuration, which for different semantic fields of different languages turns out to be peculiar and unique. Since a hyperonym can be concretized not only in its immediate hyponyms, but also at subsequent stages, at which its immediate hyponyms already act as hyperonyms, which in turn are concretized at further stages of the hyper-hyponymic structure, the hyponymic configuration of the semantic field can be multi-stage, or multi-tiered, and acquire the form of a chain (hyperonym - one hyponym), radial (hyperonym - more than one hyponym) and radial-chain (mixed and most complex) structure. The depth and width of the hyponymic structure deployment and the type of hyponymic configuration associated with them determine the specifics of a particular semantic field of words both within a language and in different languages. The conducted studies of hyponymic structures have shown the national specifics of their structure. Thus, the verbs of rest in modern English are a four-tiered hyponymic structure (see Fig. 89), and the correlative verbs of rest of the Russian language form a three-tiered hierarchy. Two main forms of hyponymic relations were also identified: hyponymic relations between lexical units - external hyponymy (it was discussed above) and hyponymic relations within lexical units – internal hyponymy, which is a special type of intraverbal relations of a polysemous word (see "Polysemy").In linguistics, hyponym (from Greek. Hupó, "under" and ónoma, "name") - a word or phrase whose semantic field is included in another word, its hyperonym or hypernym (from Greek. hupér, "over" and ónoma, "name"). Simply put, the hyponym is in a typical relationship with its hyperonym. For example, a pigeon, a crow, an eagle and a seagull are all hyponyms of a bird (their hyperonyms); which, in turn, is a hyponym of an animal.

Other hyperonym names include generic term and generic term . A synonym of a hyponym based on the same level (and not hyponymic) relation is an allonym (it means a different name
Hyponymy shows the relationship between a general term (hypernym) and its specific instance (hyponym). A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its hyperonym. The semantic field of a hyperonym, also known as a superior, is wider than that of a hyponym. The approach to the relationship between hyponyms and hyperonyms is to consider a hyperonym as consisting of hyponyms. However, this becomes more difficult with abstract words such as imagine, understand and knowledge. Although hyponyms are commonly used to refer to nouns, it can also be used in other parts of speech. Like nouns, hyperonyms in verbs are words belonging to a broad category of actions. For example, verbs such as stare, gaze, view and peer can also be considered hyponyms of the verb look, which is their hypernym.Hyponymy is a transitional relation, if X is a hyponym of Y, and Y is a hyponym of Z, then X is a hyponym of Z. For example, purple is the hyponym of purple, and purple is the hyponym of color; therefore purple is the hyponym of color. The word can be both a hypernym and a hyponym: for example, purple is a hyponym of color, but in itself is a hypernym of a wide range of shades of purple between the range of crimson and purple.

The hierarchical structure of semantic fields is most noticeable in hyponymy. They can be observed from top to bottom, where the higher level is more general and the lower level is more specific. For example, living beings will be at the highest level, followed by plants and animals, and at the lowest level there may be dogs, cats and wolves.

All words have meaning and sense and some of them have similarities in term of sense. The similarities can be words that have a same meaning or at least almost meaning. It also can be words which its meaning is included in the meaning of other words. This is called hyponym (Hurford, Heasley & Smith, 2007). This cannot be confused with synonym which means that two words have the same meaning; hyponym has some points which make it different from synonym. This review will point out some of these points which are pointed out by some literatures.
Basically much of the literatures focus on purpose of hyponym. Griffiths (2006) say that hyponym is important because its relation sense is useful to describe noun. Furthermore, he says that hyponym refer to labeling sub-categories of words; what kind of word and what kind of different that differentiate it. Kreidler (1998) uses the term ‘entailment’ where the sense of the hyponym is also included in its superordinate.
There is the term of superordinate. Huffer, Heasley & Smith (2007) simply points out that superordinate is when the meaning of the word is more general. For example, the meaning of purple is included in the meaning of violet. Purple is the superordinate because it is more general than violet. However, this entailment only goes one way down from the sentence with hyponym. For example, house is a hyponym of building. The sentence there is a house in beside the road can be changed to there is a building beside the road because house is part of building. However, if it is changed to there isn’t a house beside the road than there is a building beside the road still might true because building has other hyponym. But if the sentence is there isn’t a building beside the road than there isn’t a house beside the road is true.
Griffiths (2006) provides some illustration about the hierarchy in hyponym by the house. He points out that the house means a place to live. Since house is superordinate from building than building can be said as a building to live. Moreover, he shows that building also is a hyponym of structure and structure is hyponym of thing. All of the meanings from hyponym is included in its superordinate even until the top superordinate. This is where Griffith explains the function of hyponym. He points out that the more the word has hyponyms the more the specific the word meaning. Even though the relation between superordinate and hyponym is clear, there is still some problem in English words as there are some words which don’t have superordinate. Keidler (1998) gives examples in English word which are knife, fork and spoon as these words cannot be referred to meal tools because there is no such term as meal tools. The same goes for the word luggage. He points out that the possibility perhaps piece of luggage.
In conclusion, the hyponym is used in a more specific purpose rather than to point out the same sense or meaning. It is used to describe something similar but with a more detailed attributes. The hyponym is very important as it can gives information; generally or specifically. It can be used for taking a granted. It can be used to give a general information to conceal some information or it can be used to give a more specifically way so one can understand a more specific information.

In accordance with the relations of hyponymy and incompatibility, taxonomic hierarchical structures can be formed. It consists of two relationships; an example of the first relationship is "X is Y" (a simple hyponymy), and the second is "X is the kind/type of Y". The second relation is considered more legible and can be classified more specifically within the framework of the concept of taxonomy.
Hyponymy in semantics
Hyponymy in semantics roughly illustrates 'the subordinate relation of a word'¹― but what does it mean in practice? To better understand it, let's examine these sentences:

Your first task for today is to sweep the floor.

Could you wipe the crumbs off the table?
Scrub the vegetables clean before cutting them.
The three sentences have one thing in common: they all mean 'to clean something', but use different verbs (sweep, wipe, and scrub). If we put their relationship in a diagram, we get something like this:
From this example of hyponymy we can say that:

Sweep, wipe and scrub are hyponyms of clean

Clean is the hypernym of sweep, wipe and scrub
Sweep, wipe and scrub are co-hyponyms of each other
In other words, hyponymous relations refer to the super- and subordinate relationships between words. Words on the superordinate level are called hypernyms, and words on the subordinate level are called hyponyms.

The hierarchical relationship is based on the definition of the word. The word meaning of a hyponym (eg sweep, wipe, and scrub) is included in its hypernym (clean). Hypernym is then the “broader term” of its hyponyms (a more “specific term” than the hypernym).

sweep: to clean a room using a broom
wipe: to clean dirt or liquid by rubbing something against a surface
scrub: to clean something by rubbing it hard
A ↑ ↓ B

Examples of hyponymy

Hyponymy isn't restricted to verbs. It can be found in other parts of speech, such as adjectives and nouns. Take a look at an example of hyponymy in an adjective below.
This example of hyponymy in nouns shows that:

Animal is the hypernym of bird and dog; bird and dog are the hyponyms of animal.

Bird and dog are co-hyponyms of each other.
Bird is the hypernym of robin and parrot; robin and parrot are the hyponyms of bird.
Robin and parrot are co-hyponyms of each other.
Based on the examples we can summarize as follows:

Hypernym refers to a general term (superordination).

Hyponym refers to a more specific term (subordination). The word meaning of a hyponym is included in its hypernym.
Co-hyponym refers to the hyponyms on the same hierarchical level.
Hyponyms, hypernyms, and co-hyponyms have a multiple-layers relationship. The classification is based on how many levels there are and what perspective you are looking from, so to speak.
From Example 3 we can say that:

From the perspective of the word robin, robin is the hyponym of bird and bird is the hypernym of robin.

However, if seen from the perspective of the word bird, bird is now the hyponym of animal and animal is the hypernym of bird.
The same notion applies to co-hyponyms. Bird & dog are co-hyponyms on their level; and robin & parrot are co-hyponyms on their level.