Weather and climate

MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF UZBEKISTAN

NÓKIS INNOVATION INSTITUTE

60610600 IT-"Software engineer" specialization correspondence course

8th grade student Djumanazarova Aynur
from English

Independent work


Thema: WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Done by ­ Djumanazarova A
Received ­ Naimanova N


Plan
1. Аbout the weather
2. The equatorial climate of zenithal rains
3. The climate of the polar seas


Weather and climate
Weather is the state of the atmosphere and all the processes occurring in it at a given time and in a given territory.
The concept of “weather of the day” is especially important, because day - the shortest natural period of regular changes in the state of the troposphere. There is a daily course of temperature, air humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, wind, etc. The state of the atmosphere is characterized not by individual elements, but by their complex.
The weather of various regions of the Earth depends on the radiation balance, frontal and intramass processes. Intramass processes are associated with heating or cooling of air from the underlying surface. In the first case, cumulus clouds are formed, in the second, a temperature inversion. Frontal processes are accompanied by the formation of clouds, precipitation, and winds. A warm front is characterized by stratus clouds, heavy precipitation, and light winds. For a cold front - cumulonimbus clouds, heavy rainfall, gusty winds. The weather of temperate latitudes is characterized by constant movements of cyclones and anticyclones.
Weather changes are observed in all latitudes. The weather is especially changeable in temperate latitudes. The weather of equatorial latitudes is distinguished by comparative constancy.
Various meteorological instruments are traditionally used to monitor the weather: thermometers (urgent, maximum, minimum, self-recording, soil, etc.), barometers (mercury, aneroid), hygrometer, psychrometer, weather vane, anemometer, precipitation gauge, pluveograph, hygrograph, barograph, heliograph, snow gauge, density gauge and others. At present, the most modern instruments and equipment are used for meteorological observations and monitoring - up to the use of computer technology and meteorological satellites (Meteor, etc.).
The study of the weather, its forecasting is of great practical importance. Weather forecasting is the branch of meteorology called synoptic meteorology. Weather observations are carried out at meteorological stations and posts. There is a weather service in almost all countries. Data from stations and posts are sent to the Weather Bureau. The central body of the weather service is the Hydrometeorological Center. Observations are carried out 8 times a day: at 0:00, 3:00, 6:00, 9:00, etc. Data processing is carried out on a computer, synoptic maps are compiled - weather maps. Weather maps are the basis for its prediction. In addition to maps, they make up the equations of hydrodynamics of atmospheric processes, which are solved by integration.
The most reliable are short-term forecasts (for 1-3 days), their justification is almost 90%. The longer the forecast period, the less its justification.
Long-term forecasts can be made for a week, a month, a season. The systematic compilation of long-term forecasts began in our country in 1922. Weather forecasts for a month are justified by no more than 70%. There are 3 world hydrometeorological centers on Earth: in Washington, Melbourne and Moscow.
Weather forecasts are usually given for a large area. In a particular area, it is useful to use local weather signs to clarify them.
The word "climate" comes from the Greek "clima" - zone (literally - the slope of the sun's rays) - or "klinein" - to tilt. This term was introduced by the ancient Greek scientist Hipparchus. Swimming in different latitudes, people noticed that the angle at which the Sun is visible relative to the horizon at noon decreases with the advancement to the north.
Climate is a long-term weather pattern characteristic of a given area (“average weather”). Climate is the science of climatology. A. Humboldt, A.I. Voeikov, V.P. Koeppen, P.I. Brounov, A.S. Berg, B.P. Alisov, A.A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko and others.
The climate is formed as a result of the complex interaction of the atmosphere with the underlying surface. The factors of climate formation should include:
1) geographic latitude (amount of solar radiation);
2) atmospheric circulation (air masses, atmospheric fronts, prevailing winds);
3) the nature of the underlying surface:
a) the influence of the oceans:

- proximity to the ocean;

- ocean currents;
b) relief:
- the height of the place above sea level;
- location of mountain ranges;
c) the influence of ice and snow cover, vegetation;
d) influence of vegetation cover.
All the variety of climates on Earth can be classified. The classification can be based on various features - one or more characteristics of the climate. Thus, V. Koeppen puts the temperature regime and the degree of moisture in the first place in the classification of climates, L. Berg - zonal landscape features of the territory, in particular, the nature of vegetation, B. Alisov - the dominance of one or two (for transitional belts) geographical air masses.
Consider the modern classification of climatic zones proposed by F.N. Milkov.
equatorial belt. It is located in equatorial latitudes up to about 5o-10o from the equator in the northern and southern hemispheres, on the continents of South America, Africa, the Sunda Islands and the Malay Peninsula. All year ruling here
equatorial air masses. The climate is uniformly hot and humid. Seasonal fluctuations in temperature and humidity are very small. The average monthly temperatures are +24o - +28oC, and the relative humidity is about 90%. The daily temperature range is greater than the annual one.
Within the equatorial belt, two climatic regions can be distinguished with two subtypes: zenithal rains (constantly wet) and tropical monsoons (periodically wet).
The equatorial climate of zenithal rains is characterized by a very large amount of precipitation - up to 2000-3000 mm per year or more, with a relatively uniform distribution over the seasons. Especially a lot of precipitation falls in these latitudes after the days of the spring and autumn equinoxes (zenithal rains). The nature of the weather during the day practically does not change. It is sunny in the morning, by noon cumulus clouds appear, growing into cumulonimbus, and heavy rain begins, accompanied by a thunderstorm. By evening, the sky becomes clear again, and a stuffy tropical night sets in. The weather changes during the day in the same way as the clock.
The climate of tropical monsoons is presented on the eastern outskirts of the continents of the equatorial belt - where there is a short break in precipitation. Accordingly, their number is somewhat less than in the area of zenithal rains. The dry period in the equatorial zone is associated with the movement of zenithal rains in the northern (July) and southern (January) directions and the penetration of trade winds here.
subequatorial belts. They extend north and south of the equatorial, capturing South America, Africa, northern Australia, Hindustan and Indochina. The climate here is hot and variable humid (the climate is due to the action of tropical monsoons). Equatorial air masses dominate in summer, and tropical air masses dominate in winter. Seasonal temperature differences appear in this belt, especially noticeable in Hindustan and Indochina. The average temperature of the warmest month of the year is +26o - +28oC, and the coldest - +20o - +22oC. It is hottest at the end of the dry season, before the onset of the rainy season. The annual amount of precipitation varies from 2000 mm near the equatorial belt (much more on the windward slopes of the mountains) to 500 mm on the border with tropical belts. Almost all precipitation occurs in the summer (in the northern hemisphere - from April to October, in the southern - from October to April). The duration of the dry and wet seasons is not the same. Near the equatorial belt, the duration of the dry period is 2-3 months, towards the tropical zones it increases to 9-10 months, and the wet season also changes accordingly.
Tropical belts. They are located in northern and southern tropical latitudes. In the northern tropical latitudes, the tropical belt does not form a continuous band. In the north of Hindustan and Indochina, due to the pronounced monsoonal circulation (rainy summer, dry winter), the climate is subequatorial, not tropical.

Tropical air masses dominate throughout the year. Within the tropical belts, areas with 3 subtypes of climates are distinguished: tropical trade winds, tropical marine (wet) and tropical continental (dry).

The tropical trade wind climate is well expressed in the oceans in tropical latitudes. Its distinguishing features are moderate steady wind with an easterly component, low cloudiness, low rainfall - 150-250 mm per year.
The tropical maritime climate is characteristic of the eastern outskirts of the continents of tropical latitudes. Here the climate is evenly humid, with annual precipitation up to 1000 mm. The average temperatures of the warmest month are +24o - +26oC, cold +18o + 20oC.
Tropical continental climate (climate of tropical deserts - Sahara, Kalahara, Arabia, Australia, etc.) is distinguished by exceptionally hot summers (+30o - +32oC) and extreme poverty of precipitation (less than 100 mm per year), rains are episodic. In the north of the Sahara, in the Libyan desert, the highest temperature observed on Earth was noted - + 58 ° C. In the northwest of the Sahara, rains may not fall for several years in a row. Winters in tropical deserts are much cooler. Thus, the annual amplitudes are 15-20оС. The air of these deserts is extremely dry, its relative humidity does not exceed 20-25%.
A number of features have coastal tropical deserts (the western coast of the Sahara, the Namib and Atacama deserts, southern California). Washed by cold currents, they are much cooler than inland tropical deserts. Summer temperatures are especially noticeable, the values of which rarely exceed +20°C. Precipitation is just as low, but it does not usually rain; all atmospheric moisture is formed due to night dews and fogs.
subtropical belts. They are located on average from 30o to 40o latitude in the northern and southern hemispheres. Tropical air prevails here in summer, temperate in winter. With such a contrasting change in air masses, the subtropics differ significantly from temperate zones in that the rate
The air temperature of the coldest month is positive and the vegetation of many plants does not stop even in winter. Snow may fall in the subtropics, but snow cover does not form on the low plains. There are 4 subtypes in the subtropical zone: Mediterranean, continental (dry), monsoonal, oceanic (evenly humid).
The subtropical Mediterranean climate is typical for the waters and coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific coast in the southwestern United States and Chile, southwestern Africa and Australia. Summers are hot and dry, with average temperatures of +24o - +26oC; winter is mild and rainy - + 8o - + 12oC. Precipitation is 500-700 mm per year, mainly in winter.
The subtropical inland (continental) climate takes place in North America (California), in the interior of Eurasia in subtropical latitudes, on the southern coast of Australia. The summer here is very hot (the average temperature of the warmest month is +28o - +30oC) - sunny and dry. The absolute maximum air temperature is almost the same as in tropical deserts. In "Death Valley" in California, a temperature of almost +57 ° C was observed. Winter is cool (0o - +5oC), in mountainous areas it is below 0oC and also dry. The annual amount of precipitation is 200-250 mm.
The monsoon climate of the subtropics develops on the eastern outskirts of the continents of Eurasia, North America with adjacent ocean areas. The annual course of precipitation here is directly opposite to the Mediterranean. Summer is hot and humid, the average July temperature is +22o - +24oC; winter is cool and dry, the average January temperature is +2o - +6oC. Precipitation is about 1000 mm per year, and almost all of this amount falls on the summer season.
The oceanic climate of the subtropics (with uniform moisture) is mild and humid. It is characteristic of the extreme southeast of Australia, Africa, the eastern coast of South America in subtropical latitudes and adjacent ocean areas. Average temperatures in summer are +20o - +22oC, in winter +10o - +12oC. rainfall is about 1000 mm per year, most of which falls in the winter.
temperate zones. They are located between 40o and 65o latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres. Characteristic features of the temperate zones: dominance of air from temperate latitudes and westerly winds, active cyclonic activity, cool or cold winters with stable snow cover. The climate of the temperate zone is divided into several subtypes: oceanic, marginal continental (marine), temperate continental, continental, sharply continental and monsoon.

The oceanic climate is characteristic of almost the entire temperate zone of the southern hemisphere and the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere over the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. This type of climate is characterized by high humidity, cloudiness and a small annual temperature range of 5-10°C, with persistent strong western winds. The warmest month of the year is August, and the coldest month is February (this is true for the northern hemisphere, and vice versa in the southern). Sailors called these latitudes in the southern hemisphere the "Roaring Forties."

The maritime temperate climate is characteristic of the western coasts of Eurasia and North America. Here, throughout the year, moist westerly winds from the ocean are observed - relatively warm in winter and cool in summer. The average January temperature is slightly positive (+1o - +5oC), there is no stable snow cover. The average temperature in July is +14o - +16oC. There is a lot of precipitation - up to 1000-1500 mm per year, they are distributed relatively evenly throughout the year.
A temperate continental climate dominates most of Eastern Europe and the Russian Plain, in the east of North America and in the extreme southeast of South America. Precipitation here falls from 800 to 500 mm per year, most of which falls on the warm season. The average temperature in July is +16o - +19oC, in January - from -5o to -15oC. Starting from this climatic region, snow cover forms in winter.
Continental climate is typical for Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, inland regions of Canada. The annual precipitation here becomes less - from 400 to 600 mm, and the annual air temperature amplitude increases mainly due to low winter temperatures: -20o -25oC.
A sharply continental climate occurs only on the Eurasian continent, in Central and Eastern Siberia and Central Asia. The presence of this climatic region is explained by the huge size of the continent and the considerable distance from the oceans. The annual amount of precipitation decreases to 250-300 mm, most of it falls in the warm season. Average July temperatures are +20o - +22oC, in Central Asia up to +26oC. Average temperatures in January are -30o-40oC, in the south of the region it is 10-15oC higher. Thus, one of the highest annual amplitudes on Earth is observed here - up to 60 ° C.
The monsoon climate of the temperate zone is well expressed on the Pacific coast of Eurasia - in Primorye, Sakhalin, Japan and northeast China. Winter is cold and with little snow (-15o -20oC), summer is relatively warm and humid, with average July temperatures of +16o - +20o. Precipitation falls before 1000 mm a per year, and up to 80-90% of them occur in the summer. The monsoon climate is very weakly expressed on the east coast of the USA and Canada, but here it rather has the features of a temperate continental climate with heavy rainfall in summer and winter.
The subarctic belt runs through northern North America and northern Eurasia, extending near the Arctic Circle. In the subarctic zone, two subtypes can be distinguished: continental tundra and forest tundra and ice-free polar seas and their coasts (marine).
In the climate of continental tundra and light forests, the average temperature in July is +10o - +13oC, in January -20o -40oC. The winter cold pole of the northern hemisphere is located here (in the Omyakon region, a temperature of -71°C was recorded). There is little precipitation - 200-300 mm per year, most of it falls in the summer.
The climate of the polar seas is inherent in the Norwegian, Barents and Bering
seas. Winter here is warm, around 0оС, lower on the coast; summer is cool - +5o - +12oC. The annual amount of precipitation is 500 mm or more.
The Arctic belt occupies most of the Arctic Ocean, the islands and the coast of Asia. Arctic air masses dominate here throughout the year. Characterized by a long polar night and an equally long polar day. The temperature of the summer months is about 0оС (in the inner regions of the coast up to +2оС), the winter months are from –20о to –40оС. Winter is especially cold on Greenland. The amount of annual precipitation is less than 250 mm.
The subantarctic belt runs in a narrow strip off the coast of Antarctica, including the near-Antarctic islands and the north of the Antarctic Peninsula. The average temperatures of the coldest month of the year (July) are -10o -16oC, the warmest (January) - 0o +5oC. Precipitation is 400 mm or more. Most of the year there is low cloudiness, thick fogs and strong winds.
The Antarctic belt covers the Antarctic continent. This is the so-called climate of ice plateaus with frosty summers. Antarctic air masses dominate here throughout the year. The average temperatures in July are -40o -64oC (with an absolute minimum of -89oC). Even the average temperatures of January, the warmest month of the year, are -16o -32oC. The annual amount of precipitation is less than 100 mm, and almost all of the precipitation falls in the form of hoarfrost and hoarfrost. Such low air temperatures throughout the year in the interior of Antarctica are the result not only of high latitude and a stable anticyclone, but also of a significant height of the ice shell above sea level.
Literatur

1. 
   https://www.shortform.com/blog/weather-in-literature/
   
2. 
   https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-ten-best-weather-events-in-fiction
   
3. 
   https://goweathernow.com/weather-symbolism-in-literature-how-weather-tells-its-own-story-in-the-great-gatsby/