What are learner strategies? Different types of strategies for language learning
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The pace at which science proceeds sometimes seems alarmingly slow, and impatience and hopes both run high when discussions turn to issues of learning and education. In the field of learning, the past quarter century has been a period of major research advances. Because of the many new developments, the studies that resulted in this volume were conducted to appraise the scientific knowledge base on human learning and its application to education. We evaluated the best and most current scientific data on learning, teaching, and learning environments. The objective of the analysis was to ascertain what is required for learners to reach deep understanding, to determine what leads to effective teaching, and to evaluate the conditions that lead to supportive environments for teaching and learning. A scientific understanding of learning includes understanding about learning processes, learning environments, teaching, sociocultural processes, and the many other factors that contribute to learning. Research on all of these topics, both in the field and in laboratories, provides the fundamental knowledge base for understanding and implementing changes in education. This volume discusses research in six areas that are relevant to a deeper understanding of students’ learning processes: the role of prior knowledge in learning, plasticity and related issues of early experience upon brain development, learning as an active process, learning for understanding, adaptive expertise, and learning as a time-consuming endeavor. It reviews research in five additional areas that are relevant to teaching and environments that support effective learning: the importance of social and cultural contexts, transfer and the conditions for wide application of learning, subject matter uniqueness, assessment to support learning, and the new educational technologies. List of used literature Ayaduray, J. & Jacobs, G. M. 1997. Can student strategy instruction succeed? The case of higher order questions and elaborated responses. System 25, 4: 561-570. Chamot, A. U. & O’Malley, J. M. 1994. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic learning approach. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley. Cohen, A. 1998. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman. Cohen, A. & S. Weaver. 1997. Strategies-Based Instruction: A Teacher Training Manual. CARLA Working Paper Series #7, University of Minnesota. Crabbe, D. 1993. Fostering autonomy from within the classroom: the teacher’s responsibility. System 21, 4: 443-452. Ellis, R. 1994. The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McDonough, J., & Shaw, C. 1993. Materials and methods in ELT. Oxford: Blackwell. Naiman, N., Fröhlich, M., Stern, H.H., & Todesco, A. 1996. The good language learner. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A.U. 1990. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R.L. 1990. Language learning strategies. What every teacher should know. Boston, Mass: Heinle & Heinle. Oxford, R. L. 1996. Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa. Oxford, R.L. & Cohen, A.D. 1992. Language learning strategies: crucial issues of concepts and classification. Applied Language Learning 3, (1-2):1-35. Wenden, A. 1987. Conceptual background and utility. In Wenden, A. & Rubin, J. (Eds) Learner Strategies in Language Learning. pp. 3-14 Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Bulgren, J. A., Hock, M. F., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1995). The effects of instruction in a paired associates strategy on the information mastery performance of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 10(1), 22-37. Graham, S., Harris, K. R., MacArthur, C. A., & Schwartz, S. (1991). Writing and writing instruction for students with learning disabilities: Review of a research program. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14(2), 89-114. Hughes, C. A., & Schumaker, J. B. (1991). Test-taking strategy instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities. Exceptionality, 2, 205-221. Lenz, B. K., & Hughes, C. A. (1990). A word identification strategy for adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(3), 149-158, 163. Miller, S. P., & Mercer, C. D. (1993). Using a graduated word problem sequence to promote problem-solving skills. Learning Disability Research & Practice, 8(3), 169-174. Nagel, D. R., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1986). The FIRST-letter mnemonic strategy . Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises. Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1986). Interactive teaching to promote independent learning from text. Reading Teacher, 39, 771-777. Schumaker, J. B., Denton, P. H., & Deshler, D. D. (1984). The paraphrasing strategy. Lawrence, KS: The University of Kansas. Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1992). Validation of learning strategy interventions for students with LD: Results of a programmatic research effort. In Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Contemporary intervention research in learning disabilities: An international perspective. New York: Springer-Verlag. Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1984). Setting demand variables: A major factor in program planning for LD adolescents. Topics in Language Disorders, 4, 22-44. Schumaker, J. B., & Sheldon, J. (1985). The sentence writing strategy. Lawrence, KS: The University of Kansas. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1992). Classroom applications of mnemonic instruction: Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. Exceptional Children, 58(3), 219-229. Download 37.88 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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