vol4.pdf [Ivanovskiy Boris Andreyevich]

OKB-1 Branch No. 2, later known as OKB-10, then NPO PM 

(Krasnoyarsk-26), currently Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Academician 

M. F. Reshetnev Scientific-Production Association of Applied Mechanics”

32

Branch No. 2 was formed in 1958 at the initiative of Korolev to set up 

production of R-11M (8A61) tactical missiles for the ground forces. OKB-1 

Deputy Chief Designer Mikhail Reshetnev, the missile’s lead designer, was 

appointed chief of Branch No. 2.

33

 In 1961, Branch No. 2 became the inde-

pendent OKB-10, which was located in Krasnoyarsk-26, the closed city of 

atomic scientists. Reshetnev was placed in charge of OKB-10 and became 

its chief designer. In 1966, OKB-1 handed over its work on the Molniya-1 

communications satellite and all work related to communications satellites 

to OKB-10. OKB-10, subsequently the Scientific-Production Association 

of Applied Mechanics (NPO PM), became the nation’s primary developer of 

communication and navigation satellites.

34

 Here is a list of its projects:

1. Medium-class launch vehicle for the insertion of satellites up to 1,000 

kilograms into medium elliptical and circular orbits. Developments began 

in 1962 (used design inventory of OKB-586 in Dnepropetrovsk).

35

2. Strela (Arrow) system satellites for official communications. From 1962 

through 1970, four modifications were developed and put into operation.

 32.  Since Chertok’s original writing, the name of the organization has changed again. In 

early 2010, it was known as OAO “ISS”—imeni Akademika M. F. Reshetnev (or Open Joint 

Stock Company Academician M. F. Reshetnev Information Satellite Systems).

 33.  A “lead designer” (vedushchiy konstruktor) was a different position than a “chief designer.” 

In a Soviet-era design bureau, a lead designer was typically responsible for design support during 

the experimental production phase of a new weapons system.

 34.  NPO PM—Nauchno-proizvodstvennoye obedineniye prikladnoy mekhaniki.

 35.  This was the 11K65M light launch vehicle, better known as the Kosmos-3M, derived 

from OKB-586’s R-14 intermediate range ballistic missile.

15

Rockets and People: The Moon Race

3. Molniya-1 (Lightning-1) high-elliptical orbit satellite. Mastery of produc-

tion and upgrading for broadcasting television programs. Beginning of 

development—1968. Put into service in 1975.

4. Molniya-2 television communications satellite. Beginning of develop-

ment—1967. Put into service in 1972.

5. Tsiklon (Cyclone) system navigation and communications satellite. 

Beginning of development—1966. Put into service in 1972.

6. Molniya-3 communications satellites. Developed for long-range telephone 

and telegraph communications, for transmission of television programs 

to Orbita (Orbit) system stations, and for the needs of the Ministry of 

Defense. Put into service in 1974.

7. Raduga (Rainbow) geosynchronous television communications satel-

lite. Beginning of development—1970. First launch took place on 22 

December 1975.

8. The Sfera (Sphere) system geodesic and topographical survey satellite. Put 

into service in 1973.

9. National, special departmental, and governmental communications systems 

and navigation systems for the Navy produced using NPO PM develop-

ments. The following systems that were put into service should go down 

in the history of cosmonautics:

•

•

•

•

•

the Orbita national space-based telephone communications and Central 

Television broadcast relay system;

the Korund (Corundum) integrated system of space-, air-, and ground-

based governmental communications networks;

the Sfera complex updating the geodesic survey of the continents;

the Tsiklon navigation and long-range two-way radio communication 

support system with active relay for submarines and surface ships; and

the Strela standardized official communications space system using 

standardized satellites.

10. Tsikada (Cicada) space navigation system providing global navigation sup-

port for naval and civilian vessels. Its development began in 1974 based 

on the Tsiklon system.

NPO PM developments were extremely important in providing effective 

information support for the armed forces and creating a single national com-

munications and television broadcast system.

16

Rocket-Space Chronology (Historical Overview)

From the author’s archives.

Dmitriy Kozlov (left) and Boris Chertok at a meeting in Samara (formerly Kuybyshev).

OKB-1 Branch No. 3, later known as TsSKB (in Kuybyshev, now Samara), 

currently GNPRKTs “TsSKB-Progress”

36

Branch No. 3 was formed under the auspices of Kuybyshev aviation Factory 

No. 1, which soon thereafter was renamed the Progress Factory. Beginning in 

1957, instead of aircraft, the factory was supposed to start up series production 

of R-7 and R-7A combat missiles. R-7 missile lead designer Dmitriy Kozlov 

was named chief of Branch No. 3. He faced the difficult task of setting up the 

series production of combat missiles and launch vehicles for the first spacecraft. 

Considering the crucial nature of this sector of operations, in 1961, Korolev 

named Kozlov his deputy chief designer. In 1964, on Korolev’s recommenda-

tion, the government approved a decree calling for the Zenit-2 and Zenit-4 spy 

satellite projects to be transferred to Branch No. 3 and the Progress Factory. 

In 1966, Kozlov became the first deputy chief of TsKBEM and the chief and 

chief designer of the TsKBEM Kuybyshev branch.

In 1974, the branch was spun off as an independent organization—the 

Central Specialized Design Bureau (TsSKB). Dmitriy Kozlov was appointed as 

its chief and chief designer. From 1983 through 2003, he was general designer 

of TsSKB, the head design bureau for the development of space complexes 

 36. TsSKB—Tsentralnoye spetsializirovannoye konstruktorskoye byuro (Central Specialized 

Design Bureau); GRKNPTs—Gosudarstvennyy nauchno-proizvodstvennyy raketno-kosmicheskiy 

tsentr (State Scientific-Production Rocket-Space Center). 

17

Rockets and People: The Moon Race

for strategic photographic and optical-electronic reconnaissance, cartogra-

phy, exploration of Earth’s natural resources, ecological monitoring, and also 

medium-class launch vehicles based on the R-7A missile. Dmitriy Ilyich Kozlov 

is a two-time Hero of Socialist Labor and corresponding member of the USSR 

Academy of Sciences (now the Russian Academy of Sciences).

37

The Progress Factory thereafter became the head enterprise for the series 

production of all modifications of launch vehicles based on the R-7, of R-9 

combat missiles, of spacecraft developed at TsSKB, and of N-1 launch vehicles.

Here I shall list only the main projects of Branch No. 3 and TsSKB from 

1960 through 1975.

1. Branch No. 3 was responsible for management of production setup, 

modernization, and design follow-through on R-7, R-7A, and R-9 

combat missiles.

2. From 1966 through 1974 and later, the branch was independently in charge 

of development of three- and four-stage launch vehicles using the R-7A 

missile. Branch No. 3 (and later TsSKB) became the head organization 

for the development of the USSR’s only rocket for the piloted program, 

and D. I. Kozlov was the chief designer of all versions of launch vehicles 

derived from the R-7A. Right up until 2003, the three-stage Soyuz-U 

rocket was the only single-use ballistic launch vehicle in the world that 

was trusted to insert piloted spacecraft into space.

38

3. In 1964, design development began on a second generation of photorecon-

naissance satellites—Zenit-4. It was put into service in late 1965. From 

1965 through 1967 alone, 55 launches of Zenit-2 and Zenit-4 satellites 

took place.

4. In 1970, the Zenit-2M photoreconnaissance satellite went into service 

and in 1971, the Zenit-4M. Subsequently, the Zenits were modified four 

more times.

39

5. In 1972, a special precision cartography satellite—Zenit-4MK—was 

developed.

6. In 1970, development began on the next generations of Yantar (Amber) 

reconnaissance spacecraft. By all parameters, this model of spacecraft sur-

passed the Zenits. They provided detailed high-resolution surveillance of 

small objects, supplied a great degree of real-time information acquisition, 

and performed cartographic and topographic missions.

 37.  Chertok wrote these words prior to Kozlov’s death on 7 March 2009.

 38. In October 2003, a Chinese CZ-2F (Long March-2F) rocket launched the piloted 

Shenzhou 5 spacecraft into orbit with Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei.

 39.  These later variants included the Zenit-4MK, Zenit-4MT, Zenit-6U, and Zenit-8 models.

18

Rocket-Space Chronology (Historical Overview)

7. Zenit-Resurs spacecraft for the exploration of natural resources, Foton 

(Photon) spacecraft for scientific research, and Bion spacecraft for bio-

medical research were developed from 1968 through 1975 using Zenits.

8. Between 1968 and 1971, the Ministry of Defense ordered the development 

of the 7K-VI piloted military spacecraft. Subsequently, this field of endeavor 

was transferred from Branch No. 3 to TsKBEM. This development laid 

the foundation for the development of the 7K-S piloted spacecraft, which 

replaced the first generation of Soyuz (7K-OK) spacecraft.

40

I shall not provide such a detailed list of the projects conducted in the entire 

rocket-space industry. The list cited below contains only the main projects of 

the other head organizations.

OKB-52, later known as TsKBM, currently OAO VPK NPO Mashinostroyeniya 

and Khrunichev Factory (ZIKh)

41

Submarine-launched cruise missiles constituted the main thrust of the 

postwar work at OKB-52, where General Designer Vladimir Nikolayevich 

Chelomey was in charge. In October 1960, a government decree attached 

OKB-23 to OKB-52 as its Branch No. 1. Until that time, well-known designer 

of heavy bombers Vladimir Mikhaylovich Myasishchev headed OKB-23. The 

production facilities of OKB-52 became the M. V. Khrunichev Factory (ZIKh) 

in Fili—one of the best enterprises of the aviation industry. The personnel of 

ZIKh and OKB-23 demonstrated a high degree of manufacturing refinement 

and discipline, which was often lacking in recently created enterprises of the 

rocket industry. Chelomey—two-time Hero of Socialist Labor and full member 

of the USSR Academy of Sciences—remained the permanent chief of TsKBM 

until his death in 1984.

42

From 1960 through 1975, OKB-52 worked in the following areas:

1. The design bureau developed the UR-100 (8K84) combat intercontinen-

tal ballistic missile. The first modification went into service in July 1967. 

After this, the UR-100 underwent several upgrades. More than 1,000 

 40.  The 7K-S variant of the Soyuz was the basis for the 7K-ST model, better known as the 

Soyuz-T, which started flying crews in 1980.

 41. TsKBM—Tsentralnoye konstruktorskoye byuro mashinostroyeniya (Central Design Bureau 

of Machine Building); OAO VPK NPO Mashinostroyeniya—Otkrytoye aktsionernoye obshchestvo 

‘Voyenno-promyshlennaya korporatsiya Nauchno-proizvodstvennoye obedineniye mashinostroyeniya’ 

(Joint-Stock Company Military-Industrial Corporation Scientific-Production Association of 

Machine Building); ZIKh—Zavod imeni M. V. Khrunicheva (M. V. Khrunichev Factory).

 42.  Chelomey received two Hero of Socialist Labor awards, in 1959 and 1963. He became 

a full member of the Academy of Sciences in 1962.

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Rockets and People: The Moon Race

UR-100 missiles in silo launchers constituted the main offensive force of 

the Strategic Rocket Forces (RVSN).

43

2. The production of UR-100s, their upgrading, and their operational sup-

port constituted ZIKh’s main workload until the mid-1970s. A modifica-

tion (of the UR-100) known as the UR-100K (RS-10 or 15A20) went 

into service in December 1972. The next modification, the UR-100U, 

which went into service in September 1974, had a nose cone contain-

ing three warheads with a TNT equivalent of 350 kilotons each. At a 

maximum range of 10,000 kilometers, the inertial control system pro-

vided a circular error probability (CEP) of 900 meters.

44

 Between 1972 

and 1974, the new UR-100N missile was developed, and in 1975 it was 

put into service. It was equipped with six individually targeted warheads 

with a TNT equivalent of 0.75 megatons each. During the 1980s, it was 

replaced with the modified UR-100NU, which is still in service today. 

  The UR-100N and UR-100NU intercontinental ballistic missiles, which 

are relatively inexpensive and simple to operate, were mass-produced and 

placed in lightly protected silos. According to Chelomey’s concept, in the 

event of a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, there must always be enough 

missiles on hand for a retaliatory strike.

3. The Taran (Ram) project, which called for the use of the UR-100 as 

an antiballistic missile, was developed from 1964 to 1965. It was never 

implemented.

4. After the UR-100, launch vehicle projects cropped up one after the other: 

the medium-class UR-200, heavy-class UR-500, and super-heavy UR-700. 

A small series of UR-200 launch vehicles underwent flight tests from 

1963 to 1964. Chelomey proposed using the UR-200 as an all-purpose 

launch vehicle for various payloads. The UR-200 carrying a nuclear war-

head was capable of reaching distances in excess of 12,000 kilometers. 

Among the payloads developed at OKB-52 for the UR-200 were the 

IS (Satellite Fighter) maneuvering spacecraft, satellites for global naval 

reconnaissance, and even satellites capable of striking ground targets.

45

 

 

 43.  Author’s note: Most domestic Soviet missiles had four or even five names: military, 

industrial, international (as mentioned in treaties), U.S., and NATO designations. For example: 

UR-100K, 15A20, RS-10, SS-11, and Sego, respectively.

 44.  The Russian term for CEP is KVO—Krugovoye veroyatnoye otkloneniye (circular probable 

deviation).

 45. IS—Istrebitel sputnikov. The first IS spacecraft were launched in 1963 and 1964 as 

Polet-1 and Polet-2.

20

Rocket-Space Chronology (Historical Overview)

  Operations on the UR-200 stopped in 1965. By that time, Yangel’s 

R-16 intercontinental ballistic missile had been put into service, and by 

all parameters the new heavy R-36 had surpassed the UR-200.

5. The draft plan of the two-stage UR-500 launch vehicle was completed in 

1963.

46

 At the firing range, fundamentally new ground-based launch sys-

tems for this missile were built. Military builders were blamed for disrupting 

the N-1 schedule: construction on the large Assembly and Testing Building 

(MIK), the launch site, and the residential area dragged on.

47

 They were 

forced to throw all their efforts onto the “left flank”—the open “western 

front” where Chelomey’s engineering facility and launch sites were under 

construction. This “left flank” 70 kilometers northwest of the city of Leninsk 

was the location of two launch sites with four UR-500 launchers, an engi-

neering facility with two MIKs, and a residential area for 10,000 people. 

  According to our traditions, even for the first experimental launches 

of a launch vehicle, we created an expensive payload. Using a third-

stage hull, OKB-52 manufactured the Proton satellite—a heavy space 

laboratory designed to study cosmic rays and to interact with super-

high-energy particles. The block of science equipment containing 

detectors for all types of space particles was developed under the super-

vision of Academician Sergey Nikolayevich Vernov at the Moscow 

State University’s Scientific-Research Institute of Nuclear Physics.

48

 

  The first launch of the two-stage UR-500 took place on 16 July 1965.

6. In addition to the scientific equipment, Proton-1 was equipped 

with a power plant with solar arrays, telemetry systems, spatial ori-

entation indicators, an on-board control complex with sequencer 

(PVU), a command radio link, and a thermal control system.

49

 

  Flight-developmental tests (LKI) of the two-stage UR-500 Proton 

rocket ended on 6 July 1966 with the launch of the Proton-3 space station. 

Three out of the four launches were successful. The third launch failed 

during the second-stage operational segment.

50

 46.  In the Soviet research and development process, the “draft plan” (eskiznyy proyekt) represents a 

multivolume set of documents describing in detail a vehicle’s basic design and performance elements.

 47. MIK—Montazhno-ispytatelnyy korpus.

 48.  Sergey Nikolayevich Vernov (1910–1982) was a famous Soviet physicist specializing in 

the physics of cosmic rays. From 1960 to 1982, he served as director of the Scientific-Research 

Institute of Nuclear Physics (NIIYaF) of Moscow State University (MGU). He became a full 

member of the Academy of Sciences in 1968.

 49.  The literal Russian term for a sequencer is PVU—programmno-vremennoye ustroystvo 

(programmable timing instrument).

 50.  This launch took place on 24 March 1966.

21

Rockets and People: The Moon Race

7. The three-stage UR-500K was developed in response to the aforemen-

tioned decree of 3 August 1964 and in accordance with Khrushchev’s 

admonition, “Don’t let the Americans have the Moon!” The decree named 

OKB-52 as the top executor of the piloted circumlunar flight program. 

The deadline: 1966 to the first half of 1967. There remained only two 

and a half years from the day that Khrushchev signed the decree until the 

piloted circumlunar flight. Understanding the vulnerability of the highly 

complex Soyuz program for circumlunar flight, after the successful launch 

of the two-stage UR-500, Korolev instructed his designers to study the 

possibility of using stockpiled inventory from the piloted vehicle of the 

Soyuz program and the Block D upper stage of the N1-L3 program. 

  After the overthrow of Nikita Khrushchev in October 1964, the top 

governmental officials had the opportunity to exercise some common sense. 

The Military-Industrial Commission, the head ministries, and the defense 

department of the Communist Party Central Committee understood 

that it was an unjustifiable dissipation of efforts to pursue two circum-

lunar flight projects—Korolev’s Soyuz using a three-stage Semyorka and 

Chelomey’s using the UR-500K launch vehicle. In August 1965, the VPK 

recommended that Korolev and Chelomey resolve the issue of whether it 

would be possible to unify the piloted vehicles for the circumlunar flight 

and use the UR-500K rocket in the Soyuz system program. The result of 

this difficult joint operation of OKB-1 and OKB-52 was the develop-

ment of a version of the launch vehicle in which the third stage of the 

UR-500K rocket fell into the ocean rather than inserting the circumlunar 

flight vehicle into orbit. The Block D booster stage, adapted from N1-L3, 

provided the acceleration to leave Earth orbit and achieve escape velocity. 

In all, from March 1967 through December 1970, there were 25 launches 

of the UR-500 and UR-500K rockets.

51

 Today, the UR-500K under the 

name Proton is one of the most reliable heavy launch vehicles.

8. After the first successful launches of the UR-500, OKB-52’s initiative in 

cosmonautics was not limited to ideas of circumlunar flight. In 1965, 

Chelomey and his deputies Gerbert Yefremov and Arkadiy Eydis proposed 

creating an Orbital Piloted Station (OPS) for integrated surveillance and 

reconnaissance. The Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) was extremely 

interested in this.

52

 It was assumed that the presence of cosmonauts on 

 51.  Of these 25 launches, at least 12 failed due to malfunctions in the main rocket or the 

Block D upper stage.

 52. OPS—Orbitalnaya pilotiruyemaya stantsiya; GRU—Glavnoye razvedyvatelnoye upravleniye. 

The GRU was the primary military intelligence agency of the Soviet armed forces.

22

Rocket-Space Chronology (Historical Overview)

board a spy spacecraft and their involvement in obtaining information using 

optical, television, radar, and high-resolution cameras would help to make 

a qualitative leap compared with specialized unpiloted spy satellites. The 

Almaz (Diamond) orbital station was developed. We subsequently proposed 

using its first hulls for the Salyut Long-Duration Orbital Stations (DOS). 

  The first Almaz launch took place on 3 April 1973. The three-stage 

UR-500K, which underwent development testing with launches for the 

L1 and DOS programs, inserted it into orbit. However, the station mal-

functioned before a piloted vehicle could lift off to meet up with it. For 

reasons of secrecy, the Almaz was called Salyut-2 so there would be no doubt 

that it had the same peaceful purpose as our DOS—the first in the Salyut 

series. Almaz launches ended in 1976 due to an expansion of international 

collaboration and concentration of efforts on a single type of Salyut piloted 

Long-Duration Orbital Station. The 

Almaz spacecraft that were inserted 

into space were called Salyut-2, -3, 

and -5. The DOSes were referred 

to as Salyut-1, -4, -6, and -7 all the 

way up until the Mir station.