1. modern linguistics as a change of paradigms

1.MODERN LINGUISTICS AS A CHANGE OF PARADIGMS
I. Historical and philosophical premises of modern linguistics.
II. Paradigm in science
III. Reasons for changing steam
IV. The main features of modern linguistics.
I. The formation of modern linguistics in the second half of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries was decisively influenced by the whole life of mankind and the development of science of this period.
The 20th century is, as you know, the century of scientific and technological progress that has reached truly unprecedented rates, this is the time of the greatest social upheavals on a global scale - revolutions, world wars, and numerous conflicts. Both progress and conflicts have demanded new qualities from the person himself, who is becoming the center of consideration of many sciences. Actually, at the beginning of the 20th century, the sciences of man have been still emerging. Development of philosophy is characterized by a clear transition to anthropological problems: a person becomes the center of consideration of philosophy.
The main anthropological directions of the 20th century are:
1. Philosophical anthropology (human philosophy) - a direction that aimed to create a holistic teaching about a person by using and interpreting data from various sciences - psychology, biology, ethology, sociology, etc.
2. Neo-Freudianism, which was formed in the 20-30s of the XX century, when Individual Psychology (personality psychology), founded by Alfred Adler (1870-1937), and the Zurich School of Analytical Psychology, the largest representative of which was Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) , were separated from Freudianism. Subsequently, this direction in psychology and psychiatry, as well as sociology and philosophy, became widespread in the United States.
3. Existentialism (the philosophy of human existence) is a philosophical direction that focuses its attention on the uniqueness of a human being, proclaiming it irrational. The term existential philosophy was introduced by the German philosopher Karl Jasper in 1931 in his work “The Spiritual Situation of Time”. The term "existentialism" is used in the title of the work of the French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre, who divided existentialism into religious (Karl Jaspers, Gabriel Marcel) and atheistic (Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Martin Heidegger).
The main epistemological directions in the XX century were:
1. Neopositivism (logical positivism, logical empiricism, linguistic positivism) is one of the main directions of philosophy of the first half of the 20th century, combining the basic principles of positivism philosophy with the wide use of the technical apparatus of modern (mathematical, symbolic) logic. The main ideas of neopositivismwere formulated in the mid-1920s. last century by philosophers, the members of Vienna Circle. The philosophy of neo-positivism is based on the ideas of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), worded in the Logical and Philosophical Treatise. In this work, he offers a theory that solves philosophical problems through the prism of the relationship between language and the world.
2. Postpositivism is a philosophical trend that changes neopositivism in the middle of the 20th century. Its main difference from neopositivism consisted in switching the attention of the philosophy of science from analyzing the structure of finished scientific knowledge to the problems of rational reconstruction of the processes of discovery, dynamics, competition, and the change of scientific theories. In solving these philosophical problems, positivism distinguished between such directions as Karl Popper's critical rationalism (or falsificationism), ImreLacatos's research methodology, Stephen Tulmin's evolutionary epistemology, Paul Feyerabend's methodological anarchism and Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions.

II. The modern linguistics is called linguistics of the second half of the XX - beginning of the XXI century (in some studies, the 60s or even 70s of the XX century are referred to as the beginning of this period). For many linguists, the events of this period passed with their participation, so there is no consensus on the classification of the teachings and directions that marked this period. Significant changes have occurred in linguistics that distinguish it from linguistics until the middle of the 20th century.

Most modern scholars analyze the current state of linguistics from the standpoint of concepts of paradigma of scientific knowledge and the scientific revolution. Both concepts belong to the pen of the American historian and philosopher of science Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922-1996), the author of the book "Structure of scientific revolutions" (1962). The essence of his conception is very briefly reduced to the following : scientific knowledge does not develop evolutionarily, truth does not accumulate gradually, but in leaps, with the help of the so-called scientific revolutions. Any theory, term, etc., does not make sense on their own, but within the framework of the corresponding paradigm, that is, some historically formed system of views. The scientific revolution is a paradigm shift.
T. Kuhn himself defined the scientific paradigm as the following:
“By paradigm, I mean the scientific achievements recognized by all, which for a certain time give the scientific community a model for posing problems and their solutions” [Kuhn 1977, 11].
In this definition, we find three important attributes of the scientific paradigm:
1) Universal recognition of scientific achievements (theories of local importance do not form a paradigm). This does not necessarily mean that they are immediately known and recognized in every corner of the globe, but their influence on the development of all world science or a particular branch of science is decisive.
2) Their action takes place over a limited period of time (these achievements, which make up the paradigm, are not eternal). So, any of the periods known to us in the development of linguistics has quite clearly defined boundaries.
3) A model of how the problem is posed and how it is solved (recognized scientists create a model or matrix, their followers analyze reality according to this model). Of course, within the paradigm there may be local variations, known as schools, for example, numerous schools of structuralism that differ in their particular features.
In the development of any science, in accordance with the teachings of T. Kuhn, you can see a change in the following periods:
1. Pre-paradigmatic (until the establishment of a certain paradigm);
2. Dominance of the Paradigm (the so-called “normal science”);
3. The crisis of normal science (the impossibility of this paradigm to explain the truth);
4. scientific revolution (paradigm shift - transition from one paradigm to another).
It is practically impossible to draw clear boundaries within these periods, but it is obvious that the smallest stage of the new paradigm practically coincides with the scientific revolution, which subsequently leads to the dominance of the new paradigm.

III. The reasons for the paradigm shift are:

a) the inability of the previous paradigm to explain reality, in linguistics - linguistic reality;
b) the mismatch of the state of science to the needs of society.
When the two conditions mentioned above exist, a scientific revolution (scientific revolution) occurs, leading to a change of one paradigm of scientific knowledge into another. The old paradigm finds itself in a crisis, which is caused, first of all, by the mechanical accumulation of knowledge about the object of science, the new paradigm must bring science out of this crisis state and have an explanative, that is, explanatory power that the old paradigm did not have, “... a new theory arose only after sharply expressed failures in the activity on the normal solution of problems ”[Kuhn 1975, 110].
Examples of scientific revolutions in the field of linguistics are usually called the “Course of General Linguistics” by F. de Saussure, who overcame the contradictions of young grammars and laid the foundations of structuralism, and the scientific concept of N. Chomsky, which replaced structuralism with a complex system of many scientific paradigms, the center of which is the person speaking (it is quite indicative that the transition from structuralism to modern paradigmatic system of linguistics is called the Chomsky revolution).

IV. Modern linguistics is characterized by many distinctive features.The four main " assumptions in the research program of modern linguistics ” E. S. Kubryakova called expansionism, anthropocentrism, functionalism and a tendency to explain [Kubryakova 1994, 3]. It is customary to interpret these four features as the main characteristic features of modern language science.

1. Linguistic expansionism, as the name implies, consists in the “invasion” of linguistics in new previously unaccustomed to it areas, information from other sciences is actively used, entire areas of linguistics are formed on the “border” with these related sciences (psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics, neuro-linguistics, sociolinguistics, linguoculturology, ecolinguistics), new objects of research are naturally appearing, and traditional problems of linguistics are being revised from new positions, the language material explores using new techniques.
2. The second most important feature of modern linguistics is anthropocentrism, that is, the focus of attention on linguistic theories has become not linguistic phenomena abstracted from many factors, but the phenomenon of language as a human activity. Moreover, various sections of modern linguistics consider a person as a speaking subject from different perspectives. So, sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society: language and nationality, language and class, language and social group, and much more. Psycholinguistics studies the mental processes associated with the generation and perception of speech in the broadest sense. Ethno-linguistics is associated with the study of languages ​​in direct connection with the history of peoples, ethnic groups, speaking them. Linguoculturology studies language as the cultural code of a nation.
3. Functionalism assumes an explanation of the linguistic form by its functions, modern functionalism or neofunctionalism" is aimed at the analysis of different types of communicative activity taking into account cognitive processes, psychological mechanisms, strategies and the effectiveness of communicative interaction. Recently, certain aspects of functional linguistics have been combined with such promising areas of research as cognitology, psycholinguistics, and the theory of language communication due to the teleological, causal, and dynamic orientation of the functional approach ”[Levitsky 2010, 31]. The basic principles of modern functionalism are considered to be its typological orientation, empiricism, the use of quantitative research methods and, as we have seen more than once, the interdisciplinary of interests.
4. The tendency to explain or, as linguists write more often, explanation suggests, as one of the main tasks of modern linguistics, to find a certain explanation of the internal organization of the language: “... this methodological principle is due the growing level of development of science, the emergence of new, more accurate research methods that contribute to a person in his search for truth, in an effort to find an explanation for the generation and understanding of language ”[Khomutova 2009, 149].
It is easy to see that all of the listed signs of modern linguistics are closely related to each other, and each of the modern directions of linguistics is characterized by these features.