1Comparative Typology as a branch of general linguistics

One-member sentences of nominal type.
They are expressed by 1 model only where subject is a noun in Nominative case typical of the Russian lang only
Ex.ночь, улица, фонарь, аптека
In modern English they are now used in fiction.
Ex. Night and the boundless sea.
In present day English they can be used either.

2. 
   Communicative function
   

According to the communicative function sentences may be
Declarative (negative, …..)Imperative Exclamatory Affirmative sentences express some statement, the difference is in word-order.
Negative sentences differ in structure. In Russian they may have several negations
Ex. Никто никогда ничего не знает
In English only 1
Ex. Nobody ever knows…
Interrogative sentences may be of the following types

1. 
   General questions 2Special 3Alternative 4Disjunctive
   

An interrogative word in English is always placed at the head of a special question.
Ex. What is your name? where did you go?
In Russian it may be place in the middle of the sentence.
Ex. Он куда уехал?
Besides in Russian a sentence may become interrogative without any syntactical changes. The intonation turns a statement into a question?
Ex. Он студент?
Imperative sentences in both lang-es induce the person addresses to fulfill a certain action or request. And they have verbs in imperative mood.
Ex. Пиши, сиди,. Come here.
(+ знания о повелительном наклонении)


24. Attributive word combinations in eng and rus.
In attr word combinations, both components are joined together with the help of syntactical subordinate connection. There are 7 types of attr word combinations :
1 prepositional attributive word combinations with agreement (concord)
adjunct+kernel
This type of word combinations is typical of the Russian language where we can observe agreement in 3 categories (the cat of gender, number and case) like (большой город, большое село, большая страна)
In English there is no agreement btw adjunct & kernel word in corresponding word combinations. ( large city, large lake) It is called adjoinment. In English adjunct word maybe expressed by
1 a noun in attributive function (a picture gallery, a tennis table)
In Russian such combination seldom occur . We may meet them only in constructions like (душевный человек, краса девица)
2 pronoun (in both languages) – my book, his book, моя книга, его книга.
3 participles (in both languages) a laughing girl, цветущий сад.
4numerals (in both languages) the first lesson, первый урок
There are only 2 types of agreement in English and only in the category of number, when demonstrative pronouns are used (this house, these houses, that table, those tables)
2 type of attr word combination is called prepositional attributive combination with government.
Adjunct + kernel (my brother’s book, a mile’s distance) Russian equivalent is adjective + noun ( часовая поездка)
3 prepositional attributive word-combinations with adjoinment .
In this type of word combination relations are not expressed morphologically, the meaning depends upon word –order like in isolating languages, chineese ( a silver spoon , a silk blouse) but (blouse silk – the meaning is different)
In russian the same example have agreement ( серебряная ложка, каменная стена)
If we change the word combination we shall get predicative word combination with the same lexical meaning.
4 attributive post positional word combinations with government, where adjunct word is expressed by a noun in one of its case forms. There are several classes of this type
1- genitive class (typical of the rus language only книга брата) In English it will be prepositional with government – brother’s book or with the preposition “of”
2 -dative class, where adjunct word is expressed by a noun in dative case. It is typical of the rus language only. Письмо брату, ответ другу. In eng corresponding word combinations will have preposition “to”
3 – instrumental class, where the adjunct word is a noun, in instrumental case. In rus it is работать пилой, ходить лесом. In eng, in such cases prepositions “by or with” are used.
5 attributive post positional with adjoinment, where
1 a kernel word may denote some general notion, and adjunct word is more concrete город москва,профессор иванов. The same in eng – professor Brown
2 a kernel word is a noun and an adjunct word is a verb. Желание работать.Еру same constructions we may find in eng – the promise to marry
3 a kernel is a noun , and adjunct – is a numeral(room 3, chapter 7) In rus, we have no such combinations. (комната пятая – it will be predicative)
4 a kernel word is a verb, but adjunct is an adverb- to read fast, in rus читать быстро.
5 a kernel word is a noun, an adjunct word is an adverb (езда верхом, взгляд искоса) In eng there are no corresponding word combinations.
6 attributive post positional word combinations with government and preposition
kernel +preposition+adjunct
They are typical of the russian language only. Classes:
1 genetive class with the structure kernel+preposition «из» +adjunct word платье из шерсти
2 dative class K+ по +adjunct (любовь к музыке)
3 accusative «на, под» kernel + на , пол + adjunct
4 instrumental «за,между» разговор за обедом
5 prepositional class with «в,на» дама в очках., шуба на меху.
7 attributive post positional word combinations with adjoinment and prepositions typical of the English language only. Classes:
1 a kernel word is a noun with prepositions- about, of. (stories about dogs, the end of the street)
2 a kernel word is an adjective with prepositions –of, at, (good at sport, proud of his son.)
25. Word classes in eng and rus. Polysemy and homonymy.


26. Types of synonyms and antonyms in eng and rus.


27. Euphemisms and taboos in eng and Rus.


28. figurative meanings of words in eng and rus.


29. typology of word fromation16.

Every word in different lang-es has 2 sets of forms. 1) word-changing form buikt with the help of word-changing morphemes

Ex. Дом – дома – домов , town – towns.
2) word-buildings set which is formed with the help of word-building morpheme, which change the meaning of a root morpheme:
Ex. Teach-teacher, дом-домик.
In English a root morpheme usually consists of the stem of a word. But in other flexional lang-es roots don’t coincide with the stem. According to their structure words in 2 lang-es may be divided into the following types:

1. 
   Root (R) when a word consists of a root morpheme only.
   
2. 
   R+suffix = this type is both productive in both lang-es. The most productive suffixes of nouns denoting the doer of the action are
   

Ex. Suffix – er, - or, ess, -nik.
In russ suffixes –тель, -щик, -чик are productive.
Less productive S of nouns in Eng –ship, -hood, -dom.
In Rus –у, -ок,…

In Riussian there’s a great number of S with some emotive or expressive charge –чик, еньк, ка, ик,

In Eng the meaning of such S is usually rendered with the help of word combinations.
2 ) the most productive S in Eng – abke, -full, -less
In Rus –ов, -ист, - оват, -ск,
Prefixal type Prefix+Root
Prefixes are more productive in verbs. The most productive in Eng is re- which corresponds in Russian to пере-. In Adjectives the most productive is Un- rendered with Не- in Rus.
Prefixal-suffixal type prefix+root+suffix.
Characteristic of both parts of speech in both lang.
Non-affixal type of word-building. The most productive model is Noun – verb. This type embraces a great number of derivative words in Eng.
Ex. A walk – to walk.
In Rus it is less productive. Some grammarians distinguish the same model
The Verb into a Noun – (ходить – ход)
A Noun – into verb ( глаз – глазеть)
A noun in Instrumental case changes into an Adverb. Любоваться ранним утром. Утром мы пошли на речку.
A Noun is formed from attributive word-combinations Ex. Столовая комната – столовая. Военный человек – военный.


30. typology of compound words


31. types of bilinguism


32. types of language interference


3. COMPARATIVE PHONETICS AND typology
Phonetics as we know studies the way how sounds are produced and comprehended. The function of sounds is examined by another linguistic discipline phonology. These terms are taken in European linguistics, but Americans use the term phonology to both phonetics and phonology. There are different aspects of sounds:

1.