24. Word-Formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns

1.Contradictories which represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like dead and alive, single and married

.2.Contraries differ from contradictories mainly because contradictories admit of no possibility between them(man — woman).

3.Incompatibles. Semantic relations of incompatibility exist among the antonyms with the common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy, i.e. as the relations of exclusion but not of contradiction(a handsome man—an ugly man).
22.A verb(to look) which possesses the highest frequency of use compared with its synonyms, and so plays an impor­tant role in communication. Its role and position in relation to its synonyms is also of some importance as it presents a kind of centre of the group of synonyms, as it were, holding it together.Its semantic structure is quite simple: it consists only of denotative component and it has no connotations.

All synonymic groups have a "central" word of this kind whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group. This word is called the dominant synonym.

Ex.To surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound.

To shout — to yell — to bellow — to roar.

The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all syno­nyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent.The following characteristic fea­tures of the dominant synonym can be underlined:

I. High frequency of usage.

II. Broad combinability, i. e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words.

3. 
   Broad general meaning.
   

Lack of connotations. (This goes for stylistic con notations as well, so e referent.

20.Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. The most contro­versial among these is the problem of criteria of synonymy. To put it in simpler words, we are still not certain which words should cor­rectly be considered as synonyms, nor are we agreed as to the charac­teristic features which qualify two or more words as synonyms.

Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual cri­terion and defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

Some aspects of this definition have been criticised. It has been pointed out that linguistic phenomena should be defined in linguistic terms and that the use of the term concept makes this an extralinguistic definition. In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is fre­quently used.

21.Synonyms are words different in their sound-form,but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form but identical or similar in meaning.

Differentiation of synonyms may be observed in different semantic components— denotational or connotational.

The difference in denotational meaning cannot exceed certain limits, and is always combined with some common denotational component. Synonymity implies certain differences in the denotational meaning of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms:

a)idiographic (are words convain the same concept but different in shades of meaning.Ex: to look,to cry);

b)stylistic(are words different in their stylistic characteristics.Ex: large-big).

This classification proceeds from the assumption that synonyms may differ either in the denotational meaning (ideographic synonyms) оr the connotational meaning, or to be more exact stylistic reference. This assumption cannot be accepted as synonymous words always differ in the denotational component