A thesis in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

0. Theoretical Framework

It is essential to look at theories that can actually be applied in technology. Even though technology is considered as something relatively new, still the ideas underpinning it are not actually new to teachers. This is because, each teaching or learning is guided by theories. In terms of education, theories contribute to a better understanding of the aims of education where it makes ideas of educational aims clearer. Two learning theories will be used as frameworks or guidelines in conducting this research. They are the Learning-Constructivism Theory and Thorndike‟s Law of Learning.

0. Learning – Constructivism and ICT in Education

The meaning of constructivism is often difficult to define precisely. Perkins (1992) and Von Glasersfeld (1992) share the opinion that there is no single definition of constructivism and the term is often not defined explicitly by the user of the term. However, there is a common element in the belief that knowledge is constructed out of personal sets of meanings or conceptual frameworks based on experiences encountered in relevant environments. It is evident that people interact with their environment and as a result develop conceptual frameworks to explain these interactions and assist in negotiating future interactions (Perkins, 1992). Perkins (1992), in contrast to the behaviorist theory, maintains that the learner learns actively by responding to stimuli in an interactive manner to make sense of what they are learning.

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Constructivism has its roots in the psychology-based traditions going back to Dewey (1966), Bruner (1962; 1966), Piaget (1970) and Vygotsky (1978). However, more recently this is supported by biological science-based theory in neuroscience. There is a good discussion of this convergence of support for constructivism in the report by the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning (2000). It has discussed how constructivism is growing in importance in education. Prior to this there have been many models of learning based on constructivism.

Pines and West (1986) developed their own “sources-of-knowledge” model of learning based on constructivism. In their model, they discriminate between two sources of knowledge for school children. Firstly, knowledge spontaneously acquired from interactions with the environment; and secondly, knowledge acquired formally through the intervention of school. Mapped onto the model of ICT in education, this model entails how children acquire ICT skills and subsequently learn language with the aid of the just acquired skills. This is in agreement with the four possible paradigms(congruent, conflict, formal-symbolic, and spontaneous) put forth by Pines and West (1986), which specify that learning is based largely on the relative strengths of the existing and imposed frameworks and the degree to which the frameworks are different. Here, the learners are believed to learn from their existing framework or available prior knowledge and then add or acquire more knowledge henceforth.
Constructivists often view learning as a process that requires major reforms of schooling, especially through the use of ICT in education (Clouse & Nelson,

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2000). Some other constructivists argue that school reform may involve constructivist concepts such as the need for students to develop higher order thinking skills and the failure of current impact of ICT in education (Campione, Brown, & Jay, 1990; Loader & Nevile, 1991). In the extreme, the technologies of the information age are perceived to be an irresistible force on education (Mehlinger, 1996). Clearly then, both the knowledge frameworks of students (prior knowledge) and of the knowledge domains relevant to the learning activities must be considered in the integration of ICT into education.

In reality, many educators have agreed that the appropriate use of ICT by students can assist teachers in determining and catering to the prior knowledge of students and subsequently enable effective learning. Furthermore, it is usually also believed that ICT can assist students in engaging cognitively to a greater depth with knowledge domains (Newhouse, 1998). That is students are supported in employing the full range of thinking skills within authentic contexts. This is often discussed in terms of cognitive taxonomies such as that provided by Bloom (1964), where the learning progresses from the less difficult to a more difficult level.

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