Abdullayeva Dildoraxon Theme: English Language and Culture

Farg’ona Davlat Universiteti

21 09 guruh magistranti
Abdullayeva Dildoraxon
Theme: English Language and Culture

Farg’ona 2022-yil

PLAN

1. 
   About English language and culture
   
2. 
   The uniqueness of the English language and culture
   
3. 
   Advantages and disadvantages of English language and culture
   

In today’s world English is everywhere – from literature to films, from trade to international politics. Would you like to know more about this fascinating language and the cultures it represents, while learning to speak, write and read English at an advanced near-native level? Our English Language and Culture BA programme covers English in all its aspects, from the early middle ages to the present day.

Why English Language and Culture?
English is a truly global language, the mother tongue of approximately 380 million people and spoken as a second language by over a billion more. As an English bachelor’s student in Leiden, you will acquire an excellent command of spoken and written English, while also learning to understand the language structure and the mechanics behind language acquisition. Moreover, you will have the chance to study the culture of Great Britain and other English-speaking countries in-depth, while analysing the relation between language changes and societal changes over the ages. Our programme offers plenty of opportunities to read and study the rich literatures of the English-speaking world, from Shakespeare to Derek Walcott, and from Beowulf to Zadie Smith. You will also get a taste of the Middle Ages while exploring texts in their original Old and Middle English.
Culture and language are deeply related in that language can be used to reflect the culture of a particular society or the language can reflect the culture and its world view. Language is used to express and sustain culture and cultural associations that exist in a given society. Different ideas result from the use of different languages within a culture. World view is a structure consisting of ideas and beliefs through which a person interprets the world around him and also the world view determines how the person interacts with it. World view can be shaped by the culture and language that is common in a particular society. This is because people in a society use their language to express their culture thus expressing the world view in that society. Language and culture are NOT fundamentally inseparable. At the most basic level, language is a method of expressing ideas. That is, language is communication; while usually verbal, language can also be visual (via signs and symbols), or semiotics (via hand or body gestures). Culture, on the other hand, is a specific set of ideas, practices, customs and beliefs which make up a functioning society as distinct. A culture must have at least one language, which it uses as a distinct medium of communication to conveys its defining ideas, customs, beliefs, et al., from one member of the culture to another member. Cultures can develop multiple languages, or "borrow" languages from other cultures to use; not all such languages are co-equal in the culture. One of the major defining characteristics of a culture is which language(s) are the primary means of communication in that culture; sociologists and anthropologists draw lines between similar cultures heavily based on the prevalent language usage. Languages, on the other hand, can be developed (or evolve) apart from its originating culture. Certain language have scope for cross-cultural adaptations and communication, and may not actually be part of any culture. Additionally, many languages are used by different cultures (that is, the same language can be used in several cultures). Language is heavily influenced by culture - as cultures come up with new ideas, they develop language components to express those ideas. The reverse is also true: the limits of a language can define what is expressible in a culture (that is, the limits of a language can prevent certain concepts from being part of a culture). Finally, languages are not solely defined by their developing culture(s) - most modern languages are amalgamations of other prior and current languages. That is, most languages borrow words and phrases ("loan words") from other existing languages to describe new ideas and concept. In fact, in the modern very-connected world, once one language manufactures a new word to describe something, there is a very strong tendency for other languages to "steal" that word directly, rather than manufacture a unique one itself. The English language is a stellar example of a "thief" language - by some accounts, over 60% of the English language is of foreign origin (i.e. those words were originally imported from another language). Conversely, English is currently the world's largest "donor" language, with vast quantities of English words being imported directly into virtually all other languages.For many people, language is not just the medium of culture but also is a part of culture. It is quite common for immigrants to a new country to retain their old customs and to speak their first language amid fellow immigrants, even if all present are comfortable in their new language Linguistic differences are also often seen as the mark of another culture, and they very commonly create divisiveness among neighboring peoples or even among different groups of the same nation. A good example of this is in Canada, where French-speaking natives of Quebec clash with the English-speaking majority. This sort of conflict is also common in areas with a great deal of tribal warfare. It is even becoming an issue in America as speakers of standard American English - mainly whites and educated minorities - observe the growing number of speakers of black English vernacular. No one in other majors will be more sensitive than us about the relationship between language and culture since we are English majors. The exact nature of the relationship between language and culture has fascinated, and continues to fascinate, people from a wide variety of backgrounds. That there should be some kind of relationship between the sounds, words, any syntax of a language and the ways in which speakers of that language experience the world and behave in it seems so obvious as to be a truism. It would appear that the only problems deciding the nature of the relationship and finding suitable ways to demonstrate it The post 1 said that language and culture are almost inseparable, it does not say that these are fully inseparable. Language plays a great role in culture. I think language is the most important role-player in cultural system, since, language is the medium of expression. And, when you're forcefully and deliberately compelled to speak in a foreign language against your will, your condition would not remain the same what it is now, where one is inherently speak in another language in lieu of mother tongue, because s/he is accustomed to that language while staying in that region for many days. Language used as a native language reflects also reflects the culture of the society. It is better able to express the beliefs, and values promoted by culture of the society. In this way the language used by people affects the ease of understanding and internalization of cultural values and beliefs. For example, the English words cousin represent a family relationship quite different from the relationship represented by the words brother or sister. But as per Indian culture cousins represent a relationship very close to those of brother ans sisters. To reflect this aspect of family relationships Indian languages use terms for cousins that include the term brother or sister qualified by the exact relationship. For example, a literal translation of these terms in English would be phrases such as paternal brother, paternal sister, maternal brother and maternal sister. It it will be interesting to note that Indians have introduced phrases like cousin brother and cousin sister in the English language spoken by them to serve the needs of local culture better. Writing is the major means of communication within an organisation; paper is thought to be the major product of professional engineers; some estimate that up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written communication. Thus it is absolutely vital for you as a Professional Engineer to actively develop the skill of writing; not only because of the time involved in writing, but also because your project's success may depend upon it. Indeed, since so much of the communication between you and more senior management occurs in writing, your whole career may depend upon its quality. Writing skills can be the ticket to better college grades and greater academic achievement. This article introduces a few techniques for applying writing skills to college success. But this good advice will be lost on you if you don't believe writing skills are important and can help you achieve academic mastery. Our job is to convince you. To begin with, the overwhelming majority of instructors we surveyed said that writing skills are critical to academic success. And if you see yourself as one of those college students who will say "Phew" when the syllabus reveals only exams and no papers, what happens when those exams turn out to be essay tests? This article suggests a few ways to raise your grade on those exams simply by employing the principles of good writing -- even if you study no harder and know the material no better than you do now. Perhaps you've heard that no one cares about your grades once you leave the halls of academia. While that notion holds some truth, it is equally true that most potential employers do care about writing skills. They care so much that they bemoan the poor preparation of the entry-level pool of grads. In a labor force full of mediocre writers, someone who writes well is bound to stand out and succeed. Academicians and business people view writing skills as crucial, yet increasing numbers of these professionals note a steady erosion in the writing abilities of graduates. The summary of a study published in Personnel Update states: "Writing skills ... of executives are shockingly low, indicating that schools and colleges dismally fail with at least two-thirds of the people who pass through the education pipeline coming out unable to write a simple letter." Good writing skills are essential for thinking and sharing ideas development. Although conversation takes the major role in sharing human experience, knowledge and new ideas it refers to present times only. Speaking, whatever good it is, does not work when we need to leave valuable information for our descendants.Good writing is mainly based on close interrelation writer-reader where reader is to be the primary person. This reader-oriented approach breaks down some strict rules which usually cut down writer's freedom and fresh ideas in writing. However, the general knowledge of structure, content, style, referencing, spelling and grammar are still very important.An essay content is the primary step to start writing. Usually work comprises ideas statement, problem question and its definition and author's arguments for this question. The statement and problem mainly come from available resources: books, reviews, journals, magazines which can be easily found in libraries and electronic sources. When a writer gathers all needed materials his next step is to construct an appropriate scheme which is usually called a plan or outlines. Both composing and structure are aimed to produce qualitative link of chains which are closely connected and reflect the initial statement. Thus, essay structure consists of three parts: introduction (beginning), body (middle) and conclusion (end) which must have smooth transitions between each other.Introduction must clearly show the subject and its back ground in order to explain a reader what you are going to write about. Sometimes questions are of great help to set up your subject clearly. Many instructions recommend such sort of questions: What is the important thing for your reader to consider? What can your reader learn? According to the reader-oriented viewpoint it is necessary to explain all the terms that a writer is going to use because some of them are difficult to understand by a reader. The subject appointed in introduction must be developed in the main part ? body. The classic guides demand three paragraphs of the body. This number should vary because paragraph is not a structural part but a writer's completed thought which is included into the whole subject. The aim to complete your whole idea or statement may demand different sizes and even numbers of paragraphs. Thus, the only thing that should not be neglected is a sentences completion and logic interaction between them. One of the most valuable and reliable things to not loose logic link is avoiding long and complicated sentences.Conclusions are aimed to: 1) summarize all previous information; 2) sum up and point out the most important things; 3) introduce a new question or idea for further researches. Successful combination of summary and closure with new suggestions is considered to be 'the very best endings'.
With the spread of literacy, cultural life in Britain naturally developed also in the cities, plays were performed at important religious festivals. They were called “mystery plays” because of the mysterious nature of events in the Bible, and they were a popular form of culture. In the larger cities some guilds made themselves responsible for particular plays, which became traditional yearly events. e4j11jz
The language itself was changing. French had been used less and less by the Norman rulers during the thirteenth century. In the fourteenth century Edward III had actually forbidden the speaking of French in his army. It was a way of making the whole army aware of its Englishness.

After the Norman Conquest English (the old Anglo-Saxon language) continued to be spoken by ordinary people but was no longer written. By the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth

Centuries, was very different from Anglo-Saxon. This was partly because it had not been written for three hundred years, and partly because it had borrowed so much from the Norman French.

Two writers, above all others, helped in the rebirth of English literature. One was William Langland, a mid-fourteenth century priest, whose poem ‘Piers Plowman’ gives a powerful description of the times in witch he lived. The other, Geoffrey Chaucer, has become much more famous. He lived at about the same time as Langland. His most famous work was ‘The Canterbury Tales’ , written at the end of the fourteenth century.
The Canterbury Tales describe a group of pilgrims traveling from London to the tomb of Thomas Becket at Canterbury, a common religious act in England in the Middle Ages. During the journey each character tells a story. Collections of stories were popular at this time because almost all literature, unlike today, was written to be read out about. The stories themselves are not Chaucer’s own. He used old stories, but rewrote them in an interesting and amusing way. The first chapter, in which he describes his characters, is the result of Chaucer’s own deep understanding of human nature. It remains astonishingly fresh even after six hundred years. It is a unique description of a nation: young and old, knight and peasant, priest and merchant, good and bad, townsman and countryman.
By the end of the Middle Ages, English as well as Latin was beeing used in legal writing, and also in elementary schools. Education developed enormously during the fifteenth century, and many schools were founded by powerfulmen. One of these was William Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester and Lord of England, who founded Winchester School, in 1382, and New College, Oxford. Like Henry VI’s later foundation at Eton and Cambridge they have rremained famous for their high quality. Many other schools were also opened at this time, because there was a growing need for educated people who could administer the government, the Church, the law and trade. Clerks started grammar schools where students could learn the skills of reading and writing. These schools offered their pupils a future in the Church or the civil service, or at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The universities themselves continued to grow as colleges and halls where thre students could both live and be taught were built. The college system remains the basis of organization in these two universities.
The Middle Ages ended with a major technical development: William Caxton’s firsrt English printing press, set up in 1476. Caxton had learnt the skill of printing in Germany. At first he printed popular books, such as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Malory’s Morte d’Arthur. This prose work described the adventures of the legendary King Arthur, including Arthur’s last battle, his death, and the deathof other Knights of the Round Table. Almost certanly Malory had in mind the destruction of the English nobility in the Wars of the Roses, which were taking place as he wrote.
Caxton’s printing was as dramatic fot his age as radio, television and the technological revolution are for our own. Books suddenly became cheaper and more plentiful, as the quicker printing process replaced slow and expensive copywriting by hand. Printing began to standardise spelling and grammar, thought this process was a long one. More important, just as radio brought information and ideas to the illiterate people of the twentieth century, Caxton’s press provided books for the newlyeducated people of the fifteenth century, and encouraged literacy. Caxton avoided printing any dangerous literature. But the children and grandchildren of these literate people were to use printing as a powerful weapon to change the world in which they lived. John’s reign also marked the end of the long struggle between Chrch and state in England. This had begun in 1066 when the pope claimed that William had promised to accept him as his feudal lord. William refused to accept this claim. He had created Norman bishops and given them land on condition that they paid homage to him. As a result it was not clear wheather the bisops should obey the Church or the king. Those kings and popes who wished to avoid conflict left the matter alone. But some kings and popes wanted to increase their authority. In such circumstances truble could not be avoided.
The struggle was for both power and money. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries the Church wanted the kings of Europe to accept its authority over both spiritual and earthly affairs, and argued that even kings were answerable to Gos. Kings, on the other hand, chose as bishops men who would be loyal to them.
The first serious quarrel was between William Rufus and Anselm, The man he had made Archbishop of Canterbury. Anselm, with several other bishops, fearing the king, had escaped from England. After William’s death Anselm refused to do homage to William’s successor, Henry, meanwhile, had created several new bishops but they had no spiritual authority without the blessing of the archbishop. This left the king in a dificult position. It took seven years to settle the disagreement.
Finally the king agreed that only the Church could create bishops. But in return the Church agreed that bishops would pay homage to the king for the lands owned by their bisoprics. In practice the wishes of the king in the appointment of bishops remained important. But after Anselm’s death Henry managed to delay the appointment of a new arcbishop for five years while he benefited from the wealth of Canterbury. The struggle between Church and state continued.
The crisis came when Henry II’s friend Thomas Beket was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1162. Henry hoped that Thomas would help him bring the Church more under his control. At first Becket refused, and then he gave in. Later he changed his mind again and ran away to France, And it seemed as if Henry had won. But in 1170 Becket returned to England determined to resist the king. Henry was very angy, and four knights who heard him speak out went to Canterbury to murder Becket. They killed him in the holiest place in the cathedral, on the altar steps.
All Christian Europe was shocked, and Thomas Becket became a saint of the Church. Forhundreds of years afterwards people not only from England but also from Europe travelled to Canterbury to pray at Becket’s grave. Henry was forced to ask the pope’s forgiveness. He also allowed himself to be whipped by monks. The pope used the event to take back some of the Church’s privileges. But Henry II could have lost much more than he did. Luckily for Henry, the nobles were also involved in the argument, and Henry had the nobles on his side. Usually the church preferred to support the king against the nobles, but expected to be rewarded for its support. King John’s mistake forty years later was to upset both Church and nobles at the same time.

The beginnings of Parliament

King John had signed Magna Carta unwillingly, and it quickly became clear that he was not going to keep to the agreement. The nobles rebelled and soon pushed Jhon out of the southeast. But civil war was avoided because John died suddenly in 1216.
Henry was finally able to rule himself at the age of twenty-five. It was understandable that he wanted to be completely independent of the people who controlled his life for so long. He spends his time with foreign friends, and became involved in expensive wars supporting the pope in Sicily and also in France.
Henry’s heavy spending and his foreign advisers upset the nobles. Once again they acted as a class under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. In 1258 they took over the government and elected a council of nobles. De Montfort called it a parliament, or parlament, a French word meaning a “discussion meeting”. This “parliament” took control of the treasury and forced Henry to get rid of his foreign advisers. The towns, wich wished to be free of Henry’s heavy taxes, supported the nobles.
But some of nobles did no support the revolutionery new council, and remained loyal to Hrnry. With their help Henry was finally able to defeat and kill Simon de Montfort in 1265. Once again he had full royal authority, although he was careful to accept the balance, which de Montfort had created between king and nobles. When Henry died in 1272 his son Edward I took the thorne without question.
Edward I brought tigether the real parliament.
Simon de Montfort’ s council had been called a parliament, but it included only nobles. It had been able to make statutes, or written laws, and it had been able to make political decisions. However, the lords were less able to provide the king with money, except what thei had agreed to pay him for t he lands they held under feudal arrangement. It the days of Henry I (1100 - 1135), 85 per cent of the king’s income had come from the land. By 1272 income from the land was less than 40 per cent of the royal income. The king could only raise the rest by taxation. Since the rules of feudalism did not include taxation, taxes could only be raised with the agreement of those wealthy enough to be taxed.
Several kings had arrangements for taxation before, but Edward I was the first to create a “representative institution” which could provide the money he needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of Lords it contained a mixture of “gentry” (knights and other wealthy freeman from the shires) and merchants from the towns. These were the two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England’s wealth.
In 1275 Edward I commanded each shire and each town to send two representatives to his parliament. These “commoners” would have stayted away if they could, to avoid giving Edward money. But few dared risk Edward’s anger. They became unwilling representatives of their local community. This, rather than Magna Carta, was the beginning of the idea that there should be “no taxation without representation”, later claimed by the American colonists of the eighteenth century.
In other parts of Europe, similar “parliament” kept all the gentry separate from the commoners. England was special because the House of Commons contained a mixture of genrty belonging to the feudal ruling class and merchants and freeman who did not. The co-operation of these groups, through the House of Commons, became important to Britain’s later political and social development. During the 150 years following Edward’s death agreement of the Commons became necessary for the making of all statutes, and all special taxation additional to regular taxes.
Dealing with the Celts
Edward I was less interested in winning back parts of France than in bringing the rest of Britain under his control.
William I had allowed his lords win land by conquest in Wales. These Normans slowly extended their control up the Welsh river valleys and by the beginning of the twelfth century much of Wales was held by them. They built castles as they went forward, and mixted with and married the Welsh during the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. A new class grew up, a mixture of the Norman and Welsh rulers, who spoke Norman French and Welsh, but not English. They all became vassals of the English king.
The only Welsh who were at all free from English rule lived around Snowdon, the wild mountainous area of north Wales. They were led by Llewelyn of Gruffydd, prince of Gwynedd, who tried to become independent of the English. Edward was determined to defeat him and bring Wales completely under his control. In 1282 Llewelyn was captured and killed. Edward then began a programme of castle building, which was extremely expensive and took many years to complete.
In 1284 Edward united west Wales with England, bringing the English county system to the newly conquered lands. But he did interfere with the areas the Normans had conquered earlier on the English -; Welsh border, because this would have led to trouble with his nobles.
The English considered that Wales had become part of England for all practical purpose. If the Welsh wanted a prince, they could have one. At a public ceremony at Caernarfon Edward I made his own baby son (later Edward II) Prince of Wales, from that time the eldest son of the ruling king or quuen has usually been made Prince of Wales
Ireland had been conquered by Norman lords in 1169. They had little difficulty in deafiting the Irish kings and tribes. Henry II, afraid that his lords might become too independent, went to Ireland himself. He forced the Irishchiefs and Norman lords to accept his lordship. He died so with the authority of the pope, who hoped to bring the Irish Celtic Church under his own control.
Henry II made Dublin, the old Viking town, and the capital of his new colony. Much of western Ireland remained in the hands of Irish chiefs, while Norman lords governed most of the east. Edward I took as much money and as many as he could for his wars against the Welsh and Scots. As a resulr Ireland was drained of its wealth. By 1318 it was able to provide the English king with only one-third of the amount it had been able to give in 1272. The Norman nobles and Irish chiefs quietly avoided English authority as much as possible. As a result, the English Crown only controlled Dublin and a small area around it, known as “the Pale”.
The Irish chiefs continued to live as they always had done, moving from place to place, and eating out of doors, a habit they only gave up in the sixteenth century. The Anglo-Irish lords, on the other hand, built strong stone castles, as they had done in Wales. But they also became almost completely independent from the English Crown, and some became “more Irish than the Irish”.
Summarizing helps to emphasize the most important argument and therefore, to identify gaps or uncertain arguments in the subject. This identification of problem opens new direction for further research. The new fresh ideas can be expressed by questions which a writer sets in the last sentences of his work.The students' essays are usually assigned with necessary styles. They can be MLA, Harvard, APA or any other styles which are widely used in modern writing. They vary in citation and reference presentation but these differences are easily available in Internet resources. Different styles and assignments can bring some variations into structure, grammar usage, syntax and morphological features. The only thing that should not be omitted is the whole picture of completed and easy understandable work.It is a very good idea to remind your reader why you write this work and what it is about. Although the statement remains the same, the conclusion should develop it. According to the body content, which can approve or deny the statement in the introduction, the conclusion statement either confirms or opposes to the introduction. Certainly, conclusion, which is contradictory to introduction, draws larger interest because of intrigue. This intrigue encourages reader and involves him in further research. What Makes Writing So Important? Writing is the primary basis upon which your work, your learning, and your intellect will be judged—in college, in the workplace, and in the community. Writing expresses who you are as a person. Writing is portable and permanent. It makes your thinking visible. Writing helps you move easily among facts, inferences, and opinions without getting confused—and without confusing your reader. Writing promotes your ability to pose worthwhile questions. Writing fosters your ability to explain a complex position to readers, and to yourself. Writing helps others give you feedback. Writing helps you refine your ideas when you give others feedback. Writing requires that you anticipate your readers’ needs. Your ability to do so demonstrates your intellectual flexibility and maturity. Writing ideas down preserves them so that you can reflect upon them later. Writing out your ideas permits you to evaluate the adequacy of your argument. Writing stimulates you to extend a line of thought beyond your first impressions or gut responses.
In the second and third year, you will be able to tailor the programme according to your interests by taking several specialisation courses. Also, in the third year, you will have the opportunity to choose a minor, do an internship or study abroad. This will allow you to prepare in the best possible way for the job market or for the next step in your academic career. Culture and language are deeply related in that language can be used to reflect the culture of a particular society or the language can reflect the culture and its world view. Language is used to express and sustain culture and cultural associations that exist in a given society. Different ideas result from the use of different languages within a culture. World view is a structure consisting of ideas and beliefs through which a person interprets the world around him and also the world view determines how the person interacts with it. World view can be shaped by the culture and language that is common in a particular society. This is because people in a society use their language to express their culture thus expressing the world view in that society. Language and culture are NOT fundamentally inseparable. At the most basic level, language is a method of expressing ideas. That is, language is communication; while usually verbal, language can also be visual (via signs and symbols), or semiotics (via hand or body gestures). Culture, on the other hand, is a specific set of ideas, practices, customs and beliefs which make up a functioning society as distinct.
A culture must have at least one language, which it uses as a distinct medium of communication to conveys its defining ideas, customs, beliefs, et al., from one member of the culture to another member. Cultures can develop multiple languages, or "borrow" languages from other cultures to use; not all such languages are co-equal in the culture. One of the major defining characteristics of a culture is which language(s) are the primary means of communication in that culture; sociologists and anthropologists draw lines between similar cultures heavily based on the prevalent language usage. Languages, on the other hand, can be developed (or evolve) apart from its originating culture. Certain language have scope for cross-cultural adaptations and communication, and may not actually be part of any culture. Additionally, many languages are used by different cultures (that is, the same language can be used in several cultures).
Language is heavily influenced by culture - as cultures come up with new ideas, they develop language components to express those ideas. The reverse is also true: the limits of a language can define what is expressible in a culture (that is, the limits of a language can prevent certain concepts from being part of a culture).
Finally, languages are not solely defined by their developing culture(s) - most modern languages are amalgamations of other prior and current languages. That is, most languages borrow words and phrases ("loan words") from other existing languages to describe new ideas and concept. In fact, in the modern very-connected world, once one language manufactures a new word to describe something, there is a very strong tendency for other languages to "steal" that word directly, rather than manufacture a unique one itself. The English language is a stellar example of a "thief" language - by some accounts, over 60% of the English language is of foreign origin (i.e. those words were originally imported from another language). Conversely, English is currently the world's largest "donor" language, with vast quantities of English words being imported directly into virtually all other languages. For many people, language is not just the medium of culture but also is a part of culture. It is quite common for immigrants to a new country to retain their old customs and to speak their first language amid fellow immigrants, even if all present are comfortable in their new language
Linguistic differences are also often seen as the mark of another culture, and they very commonly create divisiveness among neighboring peoples or even among different groups of the same nation. A good example of this is in Canada, where French-speaking natives of Quebec clash with the English-speaking majority. This sort of conflict is also common in areas with a great deal of tribal warfare. It is even becoming an issue in America as speakers of standard American English - mainly whites and educated minorities - observe the growing number of speakers of black English vernacular.

No one in other majors will be more sensitive than us about the relationship between language and culture since we are English majors. The exact nature of the relationship between language and culture has fascinated, and continues to fascinate, people from a wide variety of backgrounds. That there should be some kind of relationship between the sounds, words, any syntax of a language and the ways in which speakers of that language experience the world and behave in it seems so obvious as to be a truism. It would appear that the only problems deciding the nature of the relationship and finding suitable ways to demonstrate it
The post 1 said that language and culture are almost inseparable, it does not say that these are fully inseparable.
Language plays a great role in culture. I think language is the most important role-player in cultural system, since, language is the medium of expression. And, when you're forcefully and deliberately compelled to speak in a foreign language against your will, your condition would not remain the same what it is now, where one is inherently speak in another language in lieu of mother tongue, because s/he is accustomed to that language while staying in that region for many days.
Language used as a native language reflects also reflects the culture of the society. It is better able to express the beliefs, and values promoted by culture of the society. In this way the language used by people affects the ease of understanding and internalization of cultural values and beliefs. For example, the English words cousin represent a family relationship quite different from the relationship represented by the words brother or sister. But as per Indian culture cousins represent a relationship very close to those of brother ans sisters. To reflect this aspect of family relationships Indian languages use terms for cousins that include the term brother or sister qualified by the exact relationship. For example, a literal translation of these terms in English would be phrases such as paternal brother, paternal sister, maternal brother and maternal sister. It it will be interesting to note that Indians have introduced phrases like cousin brother and cousin sister in the English language spoken by them to serve the needs of local culture better.
Writing is the major means of communication within an organisation; paper is thought to be the major product of professional engineers; some estimate that up to 30% of work-time is engaged in written communication. Thus it is absolutely vital for you as a Professional Engineer to actively develop the skill of writing; not only because of the time involved in writing, but also because your project's success may depend upon it. Indeed, since so much of the communication between you and more senior management occurs in writing, your whole career may depend upon its quality.
Writing skills can be the ticket to better college grades and greater academic achievement. This article introduces a few techniques for applying writing skills to college success. But this good advice will be lost on you if you don't believe writing skills are important and can help you achieve academic mastery. Our job is to convince you. To begin with, the overwhelming majority of instructors we surveyed said that writing skills are critical to academic success.
And if you see yourself as one of those college students who will say "Phew" when the syllabus reveals only exams and no papers, what happens when those exams turn out to be essay tests? This article suggests a few ways to raise your grade on those exams simply by employing the principles of good writing -- even if you study no harder and know the material no better than you do now.
Perhaps you've heard that no one cares about your grades once you leave the halls of academia. While that notion holds some truth, it is equally true that most potential employers do care about writing skills. They care so much that they bemoan the poor preparation of the entry-level pool of grads. In a labor force full of mediocre writers, someone who writes well is bound to stand out and succeed.
Academicians and business people view writing skills as crucial, yet increasing numbers of these professionals note a steady erosion in the writing abilities of graduates. The summary of a study published in Personnel Update states: "Writing skills ... of executives are shockingly low, indicating that schools and colleges dismally fail with at least two-thirds of the people who pass through the education pipeline coming out unable to write a simple letter."
Good writing skills are essential for thinking and sharing ideas development. Although conversation takes the major role in sharing human experience, knowledge and new ideas it refers to present times only. Speaking, whatever good it is, does not work when we need to leave valuable information for our descendants.
Good writing is mainly based on close interrelation writer-reader where reader is to be the primary person. This reader-oriented approach breaks down some strict rules which usually cut down writer's freedom and fresh ideas in writing. However, the general knowledge of structure, content, style, referencing, spelling and grammar are still very important. An essay content is the primary step to start writing. Usually work comprises ideas statement, problem question and its definition and author's arguments for this question. The statement and problem mainly come from available resources: books, reviews, journals, magazines which can be easily found in libraries and electronic sources. When a writer gathers all needed materials his next step is to construct an appropriate scheme which is usually called a plan or outlines. Both composing and structure are aimed to produce qualitative link of chains which are closely connected and reflect the initial statement. Thus, essay structure consists of three parts: introduction (beginning), body (middle) and conclusion (end) which must have smooth transitions between each other. Introduction must clearly show the subject and its back ground in order to explain a reader what you are going to write about. Sometimes questions are of great help to set up your subject clearly. Many instructions recommend such sort of questions: What is the important thing for your reader to consider? What can your reader learn? According to the reader-oriented viewpoint it is necessary to explain all the terms that a writer is going to use because some of them are difficult to understand by a reader. The subject appointed in introduction must be developed in the main part ? body.
The classic guides demand three paragraphs of the body. This number should vary because paragraph is not a structural part but a writer's completed thought which is included into the whole subject. The aim to complete your whole idea or statement may demand different sizes and even numbers of paragraphs. Thus, the only thing that should not be neglected is a sentences completion and logic interaction between them. One of the most valuable and reliable things to not loose logic link is avoiding long and complicated sentences.

Conclusions are aimed to: 1) summarize all previous information; 2) sum up and point out the most important things; 3) introduce a new question or idea for further researches. Successful combination of summary and closure with new suggestions is considered to be 'the very best endings'. Summarizing helps to emphasize the most important argument and therefore, to identify gaps or uncertain arguments in the subject. This identification of problem opens new direction for further research. The new fresh ideas can be expressed by questions which a writer sets in the last sentences of his work. The students' essays are usually assigned with necessary styles. They can be MLA, Harvard, APA or any other styles which are widely used in modern writing. They vary in citation and reference presentation but these differences are easily available in Internet resources. Different styles and assignments can bring some variations into structure, grammar usage, syntax and morphological features. The only thing that should not be omitted is the whole picture of completed and easy understandable work. It is a very good idea to remind your reader why you write this work and what it is about. Although the statement remains the same, the conclusion should develop it. According to the body content, which can approve or deny the statement in the introduction, the conclusion statement either confirms or opposes to the introduction. Certainly, conclusion, which is contradictory to introduction, draws larger interest because of intrigue. This intrigue encourages reader and involves him in further research.

Bibliography



1. Bello, Tom. "Improving ESL Learners' Writing Skills." June 1997

2. Claire Kramsch and H. G. WiddowsonLanguage and Culture (Oxford Introductions to Language Study) 1998

3. Sonia Nieto Language, Culture, and Teaching: Critical Perspectives (Language, Culture, and Teaching Series) 2009