Action research a Handbook for Students

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is defined as a family of approaches and 
methods used to enable members of local (rural or urban) communities to 
express, enhance, share and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions in 
which they operate, as well as to plan and act for their development [Chambers 
1994, p. 1253]. PRA draws on two traditions: rural rapid appraisal [RRA] and 
the premises of participatory action research inspired by Paulo Freire’s research 
[Chambers 1994]. PRA is applied especially in such areas as natural resource 
management (forestry, fishery, wildlife, etc.) and agriculture, health, nutrition, 
food safety and programmes combatting poverty [Chambers 1994]. In his pro-
cess, it is important to learn from the members of local communities who are 
involved in the debate with political leaders and researchers in order to design 
the best possible solutions [Swantz 2016].
For more see: Chambers R. (1994), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): 
Analysis of Experience, “World Development”, no. 22(9), pp. 1253–1268. 
2.10 Feminist participatory action research
Feminist participatory action research is oriented towards theoretical and prac-
tical understanding of gender and women’s experiences [Reid, Gillberg 2013]. 
This approach draws inspiration and its research apparatus from feminist studies, 

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action research and participatory action research. The subjects of feminist studies 
include various forms of women’s marginalisation in social life, or limitations 
resulting from gender-based discrimination. In feminist participatory action re-
search these issues are subjected to academic reflection, and then transformed 
into actions which are to assist women in e.g. challenging discriminatory, pa-
triarchal relationships in their communities. Colleen Reid and Wendy Frisby 
[2008] state that gender and women’s experiences are the central element of 
FPAR in several ways. For instance, they point out how various forms of patri-
archy lead to domination and resistance. Furthermore, the authors remark that 
ideas of participatory action research and feminist studies converge. Both as-
sume as goals the emancipation of underprivileged groups and fighting for social 
justice. At the same time, PAR has traditionally been conducted based on the 
assumption that the world is a place of gender neutrality and equality. Therefore, 
feminist studies enable enriching PAR with additional elements aimed at striv-
ing for social justice with the understanding of various forms of gender-based 
discrimination. FPAR empower women in the process of conducting research.
In the example of their own research conducted with women from margin-
alised groups in Canada, Reid and Frisby show how FPAR influences the em-
powerment of women who occupy unprivileged positions and helps them take 
action. In the cited research project, which they conducted with Canadian wom-
en living in poverty, they describe a situation where these women internalised 
their situation and blamed themselves for being poor. But when they opened 
dialogue with other women within the FPAR, they were able to recognise how 
certain family, organisational and social patterns impacted their prevailing sit-
uation [Reid, Frisby 2008]. Similar actions have emancipatory influence on re-
search process participants, which can (but does not necessarily) enable them to 
change and improve their situation.
Another example of an empowering FPAR project is a study conducted by 
a team of women researchers. The group organised participatory action research 
in a high-security prison. The team explored how attending college while serving 
their sentences impacted the incarcerated women, as well as the benefits brought 
to them by college education . The members of the team were, on equal terms, 
researchers from the City University of New York and women who attended 
college courses during their incarceration [Fine et al. 2004], which illustrates the 
democratisation of the research process.
For more see: Reid C. (2004), Advancing Women’s Social Justice Agendas: 
A Feminist Action Research Framework, “International Journal of Qualitative 
Methods”, no. 3(3), pp. 1–15; 

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Gatenby B., Humphries M. (2000), Feminist Participatory Action Research: 
Methodological and Ethical Issues, “Women’s Studies International Forum”, no. 
23(1), pp. 89–105. 
2.11 Insider action research
In insider action research, a member of a given organisation undertakes research 
on processes occurring within it, while remaining its member and fulfilling their 
assigned roles and tasks. This type of researcher, called a complete member by 
Coghlan [2019, p. 19], is a full-fledged member of an organisation and wants 
to remain one after the research is completed. It is a different situation from the 
one where an external researcher wants to solve a problem together with a given 
social group or organisation, and their relationship with their research collabo-
rators is temporary. As Coghlan [2019] remarks, studying one’s own organisa-
tion involves research within and on the organisation while being its permanent 
member.
A particular situation of conducting research on one’s own organisation can 
be placed in the context of Goffman’s ideas of stage and backstage [Goffman 
2011] A researcher who is a part of a given organisation can enter areas which 
are usually not accessible to outsiders. They have access to the so-called “back-
stage where they can observe informal processes occurring in the organisation. 
At the same time, a challenge and difficulty of this research approach is the 
duality of their role: the researcher is simultaneously a practitioner who studies 
their professional activity. 
For more see: Coghlan D. (2019), Doing Action Research in Your Own Organ-
ization, SAGE, London.
3. DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
IN ACTION RESEARCH
Action research does not reject a priori any of the research techniques or meth-
ods. There is no single methodological outline for a researcher to follow when 
selecting methods and techniques to solve the formulated research problem. The 
selection of methods is an individual decision for each project and depends on 
numerous factors. Certain research questions are better addressed using quanti-
tative research methods, other with qualitative, and sometimes mixed methods 
are the most appropriate choice.

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However, one of the premises of action research states that the selection of 
methods should help reduce separation between professional researchers and 
people in whose organisations or communities the research is conducted. There-
fore, methods should be empowering by enabling the inclusion of all project