Action research a Handbook for Students

w działaniu [in:] H. Červinková, B.D. Gołębniak (eds.), Badania w działaniu. 
Pedagogika i antropologia zaangażowane, R. Ligus (trans.), Wydawnictwo Nau-
kowe Dolnośląskiej Szkoły Wyższej, Wrocław, pp. 45– 88; Kemmis S., McTag-
gart R., Nixon R. (2014), The Action Research Planner. Doing Critical Participatory 
Action Research, Springer, Singapore. 
2.5 Action science
Action science is a form of action research aiming at producing knowledge which 
can be used by people to improve individual, group, organisational and other prac-
tices [Friedman, Putnam 2014]. Action science relies on the concept of generating 
useful knowledge which aims not only at explaining the world, but also showing 
how it can be changed [Chrostowski, Jemielniak 2011]. Action science is also 
defined as a form of social practice which integrates both production and the use 
of knowledge for the promotion of learning with and among individual people and 
systems [Friedman, Rogers, 2013]. It is assumed that in this approach people cre-
ate theories to test them later [Chrostowski, Jemielniak 2011]. Key features of this 
approach include creating a community of researchers in communities of practi-
tioners, building individual and collective theories of action, combining interpre-
tation with rigorous theory testing, creating alternatives for the existing status quo 
and providing inspiration to change [Friedman, Rogers 2013].
Action science is used in many different professions and areas, e.g. manage-
ment, human resources management, organisational learning, improving action 
strategy, conflict management, or supporting negotiators in learning based on 
their experiences through testing negotiation theories in their own practice, etc. 
[Friedman, Putnam 2014].
For more see: Argyris C. (1995), Action Science and Organizational Learn-
ing, “Journal of Managerial Psychology”, no. 10(6), pp. 20–26; Friedman V.J., 
Putnam R.W. (2014), Action Science [in:] D. Coghlan, M. Brydon-Miller (eds.), 

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The SAGE Encyclopedia of Action Research, vol. 1, SAGE Publications Ltd., Lon-
don, pp. 15–18. 
2.6 Collaborative action research
Collaborative Action Research is a type of action research in which the main 
principle is ensuring the possibility of joint work of people representing var-
ious roles and with various responsibilities, in order to achieve a shared goal 
[Townsend 2014, p.116‒119]. Establishing cooperation to conduct the research 
between people who are connected in some way means that this type of ac-
tion research may be influenced by previously existing connections. For instance, 
there could be issues concerning power relations arising from the fact that the 
group is composed of members of the same organisation who occupy different 
posts in its structure [Townsend 2014, p. 116‒119]. At the same time, CAR can 
be an opportunity to change power relations in the organisation (e.g. through 
greater empowerment of lower-level employees). Sometimes, however, the 
emancipatory objective will not be achieved, and inequalities can become rein-
forced and sanctioned. Collaborative action research assumes that groups which 
take on this type of research benefit the most when they are diverse. This entails 
involving people with very different views on the studied phenomenon, which 
should enrich participants’ understanding of various aspects of actions taken as 
a result of the conducted action research [Townsend 2014].
As Richard Sagor [1992] states, in collaborative action research , the goal 
of the research is always formulated by practitioners, and learning must be the 
motivation to take up the research while researchers conducting both research 
and taking action must be able to have real impact on the research subject. 
Collaborative Action Research in not a monolithic approach. Within Col-
laborative Action Research ,it is possible to distinguish other forms where 
formalised cooperation constitutes the core of action research. For instance, 
one of the forms it may take is collaborative management research which aims 
at expanding scientific knowledge in order to introduce organisational change 
[Shani 2014]. A form close to collaborative action research is cooperative in-
quiry understood as a way in which people who share similar concerns and 
interests take intentional and joint action to understand their situation and 
find a way to change things for the better [Heron 2014, p. 187]. According to 
the main premise of cooperative inquiry all participants of the process are fully 
involved in making research decisions.
For more see: Sagor R. (1992), How to Conduct Collaborative Action Research, 
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Virginia, USA; 

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2: The variety of approaches within action research: multiple roads leading to change for the better
Heron J. (1996), Co-operative Inquiry: Research into the Human Condition, 
SAGE Publications Ltd., London.;
Townsend A. (2014), Collaborative Action Research [w:] D. Coghlan, M. 
Brydon-Miller (red.), The e SAGE Encyclopedia of Action Research, vol. 1, 
SAGE Publications Ltd., London, pp. 116‒119.
2.7 Educational action research
Action research in the area of education has been carried out since the 1950s and 
it began in the USA [Noffke, Brennan 2014]. It is often understood as teach-
ers’ reflection on their practice and as a tool of education [Hardy, Rönnerman, 
Edwards-Groves 2018]. Newton and Burgess [2008] distinguish three types 
of educational action research: emancipatory, practical and knowledge gener-
ating. At the same time, they claim that most EAR is not primarily emanci-
patory. Quoting Japie Heydenrych [2001] they remark that educational action 
research should not assume a simple reflection on the practice and finding ways 
to improve productivity. It should concentrate on studying educational practices 
which are often taken for granted and unthinkingly accepted, and then prob-
lematise them [Newton, Burgess 2008].
The project, which culminated in this book, is one of the examples of edu-
cational action research. The project was conducted by a group of 12 Jagiellonian 
University researchers, and its objective was to improve practice within one of 
the didactic activities, namely organising master’s thesis seminars. For two years, 
the group of researchers has been conducting a new type of seminar in which 
theses were not written in a standard mode but based on action research carried 
out by the students. The group of researchers did their research, reflected on its 
findings, introduced changes and evaluated them. As a result of this project, real 
change was implemented into the system of MA seminars in two institutes of 
Jagiellonian University’s.
For more see: Newton P., Burgess D. (2008), Exploring Types of Educational 
Action Research: Implications for Research Validity, “International Journal of Qual-
itative Methods”, no. 7(4), pp. 18–30. 
2.8 Appreciative inquiry
Appreciative inquiry enables building changes based on best practices and dis-
covering assets of a given organisation or community. It means that contrary to 
the dominant approach in which action research focuses on solving problems 

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and difficulties occurring within the organisation, appreciative inquiry relies on 
what is good within the organisation. This approach assumes that the best solu-
tions already exist inside organisations, people, teams, or communities, and it 
is possible to discover them, provided we are sufficiently attentive [McKeown, 
Fortune, Dupuis 2016].
In appreciative inquiry the researcher is not an objective, external observer, 
but someone actively involved in the organisation or community studied. Re-
search participants engage in a dialogue during which they discover positive 
aspects of the organisation and use them as a foundation for planning future 
changes [Zandee 2014].
For more see: Zandee D. P., (2014), Appreciative Inquiry and Research Meth-
odology. [In:] Coghlan D., Brydon-Miller M. (eds.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of 
Action Research [Vol. 1, SAGE Publications Ltd., London, pp. 48–51. 
2.9 Participatory rural appraisal