Action research a Handbook for Students

Dr Beata Jałocha
Project Manager

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Dear Students,
This book is dedicated to you. It was written by a team of Jagiellonian University 
researchers to make the process of conducting action research and preparing 
your theses based on it easier for you. This monograph was inspired by our expe-
riences of collaboration and joint action research within the project carried out 
with the group of over 40 students and 25 employers.
Our intention was to show you the possibilities which action research pro-
vides to researchers. We often hear that the world of academia is removed from 
the problems of the world and practice, and researchers neither see nor understand 
real problems of organisations and local communities. Organisations, in turn, do 
not appreciate an in-depth insight which academic research offers. We believe that 
it is possible to change that, and one of the ways of bridging this divide is a dia-
logue conducted by researchers and practitioners through action research.
Action research, as the very name suggests, is a research approach which 
involves both taking action and producing knowledge or theory based on this 
action [Coghlan 2019]. Therefore, the result of action research is not only new 
knowledge, but also a concrete action, a practical outcome upon which the re-
searcher reflects. This approach differs from the traditional way of conducting 
academic research, focused on understanding the organisational reality without 
the intention to interfere in its transformation.
Action research is a general term that encompasses an entire family of 
research approaches which on the epistemological level are connected by the 
founding principle stating that cognition is possible through action. Usually, ac-
tion research has an emancipatory character, both in terms of research and topic. 
Firstly, it is carried out with people, not on people. Those who are the subject of 
academic inquiry in the traditional approach, become partners on equal terms in 
the action research process. Secondly, it enables exploring and changing organi-
sational and social reality for the better.
INTRODUCTION

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Theses which result from the concluded action research are different from 
standard theses based on conventional empirical research. This book aims at 
helping you better understand this process and — we hope — make writing 
your master’s thesis a wonderful intellectual adventure. Knowing well that action 
research requires bravery in breaking out of the stereotypical thinking about 
academic research, knowledge and wisdom of practitioners and the community, 
as well as researchers’ resilience, we do encourage you to take on this challenge.
This book is not a typical handbook, or a recipe for writing a perfect thesis 
based on action research. Yet we would like it to be an inspiration for you to look 
at the world of organisations from a different perspective.
The book consists of four chapters.
Chapter 1 discusses the principles of the two approaches to action research: 
the traditional and the emancipatory one, together with the presentations of 
their historical context. We analyse both traditions critically, illustrating them 
with examples of particular pieces of research. These two orientations have be-
come the foundation for developing many other types of action research in the 
academia.
In Chapter 2, we present the diversity of approaches within action research. 
We discuss cognitive strategies which researches can adopt, and we characterise 
main types of action research approaches. A part of this chapter is devoted to 
data collection methods and data analysis techniques.
Chapter 3 presents the process of action research. We discuss subsequent 
steps necessary for carrying out a research project, sharing relevant comments 
and advice. Rather than a compulsory model, it is a suggestion to be tried out by 
those who take their first steps in this field.
Chapter 4 takes up threads which became particularly pronounced during 
the action research-based process conducted by the Jagiellonian University stu-
dents in the years 2017–2019. Therefore, we focus on the issues of researcher’s 
relationship with organisations and people who form them.

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INTRODUCTION
The aim of this section is to present the origins of the development of ac-
tion research. As is common knowledge, each story can be told in various 
ways and there is never one correct interpretation of events. In the case of 
action research, writing about the origins is quite problematic, since there is 
no single version of the phenomenon in the discourse; what we have is rather 
a pluralism of opinions, attitudes, philosophies and consensuses concerning 
the historical sources of this approach. This is why this story is based on our 
own research experiences, inspirations from the literature and understanding 
of action research, confronted with the research community and experts in the 
field. Due to our rootedness in the Western European cultural context and 
academic experiences gained in this part of the world, the chapter is based on 
the Western European perspective , bearing in mind that there exists an entire 
tradition of the action research literature in languages other than European 
ones, and accentuating other viewpoints.
The first part of the chapter presents the philosophy of pragmatism which 
constitutes the foundation of action research. We paid particular attention to 
the ideas of John Dewey — especially those concerning democracy — who 
had substantial influence on the development of Kurt Lewin’s thought. The 
latter is the hero of the next part of the chapter in which we discuss his crucial 
ideas — the socio-technical system, participation in organisational change, 
group dynamics, and intervention research. he outcomes of research conducted 
by Lewin’s team are discussed as well. The last part of the chapter presents sev-
eral ideas, events and figures that inspired the development of the second great 
tradition of action research, namely the critical orientation, in the literature 
mostly known as participatory action research (PAR), or critical participatory 
action research (CPAR).
CHAPTER 1
THE ORIGINS OF ACTION RESEARCH
FROM LEWIN TO FREIRE AND BACK

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1. PRAGMATISM IN ACTION RESEARCH
Action research is most frequently defined in the literature as a research concept 
or approach whose purpose is to combine academic research with solving social 
and organizational problems[Rapport 1970]. It is possible, thanks to interac-
tions between researchers and organisational members, who cooperate in the re-
search process. The desired result of the action research is organisational change 
related to its
culture (change of values, norms, mentality, meanings) or structure 
(change of organisational structures, change of regulations). Kurt Lewin called 
this type of studies ”research which will help the practitioner” [Lewin 1946: 34].
The roots of action research date back to the beginning of the 20th centu-
ry and the tradition of pragmatic philosophy which became Lewin’s inspiration. 
Although there are many streams of the pragmatic philosophy, their common de-
nominator seems to be the conviction that individuals give meaning to their lives 
and the world by active interaction with the social reality which they can shape 
through their actions [Almeder 1986]. For Charles Pierce or John Dewey, truth is 
discovered through social actions and is based on interactions and consensus. The 
truth in pragmatic orientation is therefore not universal nor external to the subject 
[Joas 1993]. It is authenticity of our social and cultural experience that prove the 
truthfulness of given statements, and not their analytical and verifiable conformity 
with the empirics. In this sense, acquiring knowledge and learning is based on 
constructing truth through deepening the understanding of a given phenomenon.
For American philosopher John Dewey (1859‒1952) academic research 
means relating various elements of a given phenomenon in order to deepen our 
understanding of the social world [Dewey 1938]. Understanding occurs through 
the process of acting and observing what happens in the studied context, and then 
analysing and giving meaning to one’s experiences. This can happen thanks to the 
analysis of consequences of actions, drawing theoretical conclusions and undertak-
ing action again. For Dewey it was impossible to separate action from reflection.
The social dimension of truth is a very important principle for action re-
search: in practice, it means that all actors involved in research can agree on 
research outcomes and their implications. Pragmatic philosophy initiated the 
way of thinking about academic research results as an outcome of social agree-
ments between people [Johansson, Lindhult 2008]. Moreover, some scholars 
claim that pragmatism underpins all traditions of action research since it is not 
possible to acquire knowledge (learn) in other ways than through action [Green-
wood, Levin 1998]. In Lewin’s words, there is “no action without research; no 
research without action.” [Marrow 1969, p. 193]

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Another pragmatic idea significant for action research is the theory of 
democracy developed by Dewey [Stark 2004]. For the American pragmatist 
democracy is inextricably linked to education which can make people free and 
impact social reforms and progress. Education gives a chance to increase the 
reflectivity of citizens and their intellectual freedom, which results in the de-
velopment of civic attitudes and involvement in the struggle for other people’s 
dignity [Dewey 1916]. Furthermore, according to Dewey, the most effective 
way to resolve conflicts within communities is a democratic communication 
with all actors involved and working out a consensus together. In this sense, 
the philosopher indicated the social rather than political dimension of democ-
racy as a method for improving the quality of social life.
Deweyan idea of democracy is extremely significant for action research,