Архангельск 2015. N 20 Arctic and North
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Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 128 and give gifts as forms of thanks, news of which would be forwarded to the next village they would be passing through. The Rescue of the Karluk Bartlett left Cape East on the Herman and wired Ottawa, the Canadian capital, from St. Michael, Alaska. He recovered from severe swelling in his legs, which virtually paralyzed him, while seeking a rescue ship. He sailed in the Bear, an American ship, on July 13, 1914 and was reunited with the Karluk survivors when the Bear met the King and Winge, a Canadian ship that had rescued them the day before [20, p. 277]. Thus, on Sunday, August 9, 1914, the anthropologist Stuart “Diamond” Jenness of the CAE began his diary entry “Great news” [33, p. 261]. Bartlett had reached Plover Bay (Siberia) “all in — he could hardly stand his feet were so broken up” [33, p. 261]. Jenness summarized the story of the Karluk as follows: “The Karluk drifted about 60 miles off the coast of Herald Island, about 65 miles from Wrangel Island in January. Here she was crushed by the ice … She sank with the (Canadian) flag flying, and the ice closed over her again. The men made Wrangel Island with provisions for 80 days and plenty of guns and ammunition. (Bartlett) with a Port Hope 11 Eskimo — Claude Kataktovick — crossed over to the mainland… The Herman butted through the ice at Plover Bay, picked up Captain Bartlett, and took him to Nome, whence he was telegraphing out.” [33, p. 261]. In keeping with the style of most exploration narratives, Bartlett was the central figure for Jenness who mentioned Kataktovick only in passing. Meanwhile one survivor had died of a gunshot wound on Wrangel Island while disease had struck down two others, including Mamen, who had hoped to do the role Kataktovick did. It is interesting to speculate how Bartlett’s and secondary narratives would have been shaped if Mamen, a Norwegian, had trekked to Siberia with Bartlett instead of the Inupiaq. In 1914, there was great interest in the story of the Karluk, despite momentous events happening in Europe, and this interest was sustained. In November, 1916 the New York Times published an account by Bartlett and a chart showing the ship’s progress until it was crushed [26]. units based on where they lived and who surrounded them in nearby villages. Broader identities would become important only as outsiders developed a presence in the area and Kataktovick and Bartlett benefitted from existing networks as they traveled along the Siberian coast. 11 Jenness is referring to Point Hope. Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 129 Picture 6. The Karluk survivors on board the Bear: Captain Bartlett is fourth from the left (Courtesy of Flanker Press). Meanwhile, Bartlett, at least, expressed his appreciation for the skills and companion-ship offered by the young Inupiaq and sent his pay along to him as soon as was possible. Of their leave- taking at the East Cape, Bartlett wrote, “… we were parting here. I thanked him as I bade him good bye, for all that he had done, and told him how greatly I was indebted to him for his constant help and for his faith and trust in me” [20, p. 240]. Almost fatherly, Bartlett added, “I asked Mr. Carpendale (a trader) to tell the Chukches what a good boy Kataktovick was. I gave him the rifle we had carried on our journey and some other things we had with us, and then we shook hands warmly and parted” [20, p. 240]. By the time Bartlett wrote his book about the Karluk, he had, for the second time in his life, made international headlines; he was ensconced in popular consciousness as a man’s man, a true hero, an icon to be admired and emulated. The crucial role of the teenaged Inupiaq Claude Kataktovick and the exceedingly generous Chukchi of Siberia in the Karluk rescue, meanwhile, faded into history. The Meaning of the Encounter Western intellectuals lack the cultural background to understand non-westerners (such as Indigenous people) and represent their experiences [34] so it is hard to understand the motives and perspectives of the Indigenous people who engaged in or supported Arctic exploration. Perhaps not surprisingly, explorers rarely tried to understand and seemed, at times, not even to realize that other — valid — perspectives existed; Peary and Bartlett, for instance, were both critical of the “spells” of Ahngoodloo, an Inuk, who was likely experiencing stress in reaction to the inherent power relationships and possible power abuse inherent in Arctic exploration [19, p. 2]. Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 130 Indigenous analyses are sorely needed but there are few written accounts by Indigenous people, especially from the era of Arctic exploration 11 . Albeit from an explorer’s perspective, Bartlett gives us a window into the life of the Chukchis after whaling had declined and before they were radically changed by external forces, specifically policies in the Soviet era which would begin a few short years after the Karluk drama. Although there is evidence of trade and sickness, Chukchi values and mores seemed essentially intact in 1914, at least from an outsider’s perspective which lends the account some poignancy. Chukchi material culture seemed to be mainly Indigenous but they eagerly embraced items imported by the explorers and the whalers. It is impossible for us to know if the Chukchi felt their culture and economy were threatened or if they had the sense that their openness and ministrations likely saved the lives of their two visitors and, indirectly, the lives of the Karluk survivors. We need to build on our attempts to understand the relationships that developed between “local assistants,” who were Indigenous, and the white men who were frequently the recipients of international accolades, as Bartlett was; particularly needed are Indigenous perspectives on these relationships. Bartlett uncritically used language that reflects the ideology of imperialism, so central to his profession and peers; he wondered, for instance, if Chukchi were “afflicted with tuberculosis, to which so many primitive races have succumbed after contact with the beneficent influences of civilization” [20, p. 186]. Yet Bartlett’s telling of the Karluk story is interesting in that it shows that the captain himself, while still very much entrenched in explorer-Indigenous power relations, had become tranformed to the point that he was able to individualize, respect and give credit to at least one Indigenous person, Claude Kataktovick. He did not record any of the names of the Chukchi in his accounts, although he mentions writing some of them down but losing the paper. He did not romanticize the Inupiat or the Chukchis, writing of an arranga, “It smelled worse than any Greenland igloo I have ever been in, which is saying a good deal” [11, p. 244]. This, in combination with his habit of seeking advice from Kataktovick and writing about this practice, suggests that Bartlett did not patronize the Chukchi or the Inupiat. Bartlett also tried to model courtesy in Siberia and praised the hospitality that probably saved his life. This is but a small debt repaid to the Indigenous people who were so vital to Arctic exploration and to whom exploration cost a great deal; still, it merits some attention. Bartlett’s views of and relationships with Indigenous people occurred as part of an imperialist push, given that the Canadian Arctic Expedition aimed to advance the assertion of Canadian sovereignty over the Arctic, which was 11 Hans Hendrik’s book is a striking exception (Hendrik was a Greenlandic Inuit explorer) [16]. Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 131 consistent with goals throughout the era of “exploration.” The captain’s account, however, demonstrates that, even in this sort of power-riddled and unjust scenario, genuine humanity can assert itself from all sides. Although he has been for decades, Claude Kataktovick should be overlooked no longer. Through this young man, we are provided with an example of a skilled Inupiaq who was largely responsible for the rescue of the stranded survivors. Above all, Kataktovick was a resilient Inupiaq, a young widower who was set to remarry — to begin again — after a life of considerable turmoil, including the accomplishment of a harrowing walk from north of Wrangel Island to Siberia and the East Cape. References 1. Gray D., Canadian S. Arctic Expedition 1913 — 1918: Commemorating the 100 th Anniversary. Metcalfe, Ontario: Grayhound Information Services, Available at: http://canadianar- cticexpedition.com (Accessed: 12 July 2015) 2. Canadian Museum of History (n.d.) The Team. 1913 — 1918 Expedition. Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian Museum of History. Available at: http://www.historymuseum.ca/arctic/the- expedition (Accessed: 22 May 2015). 3. Niven, Jennifer. The Ice Master: The Doomed 1913 Voyage of the Karluk. Basingstoke, UK: Pan Books, 2000 4. Canadian Museum of History (n.d.) The People of the CAE. 1913 — 1918 Expedition. Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian Museum of History. Available at: http://www. historymuseum. ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/peo60e.shtml. (Accessed: 22 May 2015). 5. Smith L. T. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed., 2012 6. May be ‘Inside Story’ in Steffanson’s Plight: Why Did He ‘Lose’ Ship? Ottawa Evening Journal, 11 December 1913, p. 1. 7. Ikonen H.M., Pahkonen S. Explorers in the Arctic: Doing Feminine Nature in a Masculine Way. Encountering the North: Cultural Geography, International Relations and Northern Landscapes. Aldershot, Hants: Ashgate, 2003, pp 127 — 151. 8. Rosner V. Gender and Polar Studies: Mapping the Terrain. Signs 34, 2009, no. 3, pp. 489 — 494. 9. Tan, Yi-Fu Desert and Ice: Ambivalent Aesthetics. The Wasteland: Desert and Ice. Barren Landscapes in Photography. Vienna: Atelier Augarten, 2001 10. Shortis H.F. (n.d.) Notes from a Diary and Some Recollections. Papers of H.F. Shortis. 189: 189 — 194. 11. Bartlett R. A. The Log of Bob Bartlett. St. John’s, Newfoundland, Flanker Press. 2006 Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 132 12. Author unknown Obituary: Captain Samuel Bartlett. Geographical Journal, no. XLVIII, 1916 p. 436. 13. American Geographical Society (Nov., 1916) Obituary: Captain Samuel W. Bartlett. Geographical Review 2 (5): 383. 14. Hanrahan M. Bartlett, Robert “Bob” Abram (1875 — 1946). In Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth’s Polar Regions. Andrew J. Hund (ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol. 1, pp. 130 — 131. 15. United Kingdom and Ireland (1866) Master’s Certificate of John Bartlett. Masters and Mates Certificates, 1850 — 1927. 16. Diebitsch-Peary, Josephine My Arctic Journal: A Year Among Ice-Fields and Eskimos. New York: The Contemporary Publishing Company, 1893. 17. Wells R. The Town of Brigus Available at: http://www.brigus.net/wells.htm (Accessed: 12 July 2015) 18. Horwood H. Bartlett: The Great Explorer. Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1989 19. Dick L. (1995) ‘Pibloktoq’ (Arctic Hysteria): A Reconstruction of European-Inuit Relations. Arctic Anthropology, 1995, 32 (2): 1 — 42. 20. Bartlett R., Hale R. T. The Last Voyage of the Karluk: Shipwreck and Rescue in the Arctic. St. John’s, Newfoundland: Flanker Press, 2007 21. Stefansson V. The Friendly Arctic: The Story of Five Years in Polar Regions. New York, Macmillan, 1922 22. Kos’ko, M.K., Lopatin B.G., Ganelin V.G. (1990) Major Geological Features of the Islands of the East Siberian and Chukchi Seas and the Northern Coast of Chukotka. Marine Geology, 1990, pp. 349 — 367. 23. Okakok L. Serving the Purpose of Educaiton. Student paper. New York, Borough of Manhattan Community College. 24. Burch E. S., Jr. The Inupiat and the Christianization of Arctic Alaska. Etudes/Inuit/Studies, 1994, no. 18 (1-2), pp. 81 — 108. 25. Friesen T. M. Resource structure, scalar stress, and the development of Inuit social organization. World Archaeology, 1999, no. 31 (1), pp. 21 — 37. 26. Bartlett R. A. Captain Bartlett’s Story of the Karluk’s Last Voyage. New York: New York Times, 19 November 1916, pp. 1-? Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 133 27. Schweitzer P. P., Golovko E. Traveling between Continents: The Social Organization of Interethnic Contacts across Bering Strait. The Anthropology of East Europe Review, 1995, no. 13 (2), pp. 50 — 55. 28. De Reuse W. English Loanwords in the Native Languages of the Chukkotka Peninsula. Anthropological Linguistics, 1994, no. 36 (1), pp. 56 — 68. 29. Svanborg I. Chukchi. Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth’s Polar Regions. Andrew J. Hund (ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol. 1, pp. 177 — 181. 30. Kerttula A. M. Antler on the Sea: Creating and maintaining cultural group boundaries among the Chukchi, Yupik, and Newcomers of Sireniki. Arctic Anthropology, 1997, no. 34 (1), pp. 212 — 226. 31. Vaté, Virginie. Maintaining Cohesion Through Rituals: Chukchi Herders and Hunters, a People of the Siberian Arctic. Pastoralists and Their Neighbours in Asia and Africa. Senri Ethnological Studies , 2005, no. 69, pp. 45 — 68. 32. Dall W.H. On the So-Called Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. The American Naturalist, 1881, no. 15 (11), pp. 857 — 868. 33. Jenness S. E. Through darkening spectacles: memoirs of Diamond Jenness. Gatineau, Quebec, Canadian Museum of Civilization, 2008 34. Spivak G. Can the Subaltern Speak? Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (eds.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988, pp. 271 — 313. Reviewer: Nyyssönen Jukka, doctor Artium, post-doctor, the Arctic University of Norway Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 134 Picture 1. Combs [1] UDK 396 + 902 (571.56) Women if Russian settlements in the North of Yakutia at the end of the 17th century — beginning of the 18th century or the "women's issue" through the eyes of an archaeologist © Strogova, Ekaterina A., Candidate of Historical Sciences, Re- searcher, Institute of Humanitarian Studies and Indigenous Peop-les of the North of SB of the RAS. E-mail: estro@list.ru Abstract. The article deals with the life of women in the first Russian settlements in the North-East of Russia in the late XVII — early XVII centuries, known from various archaeological sources. The major idea of the article is opposite the prevailing regional historiography tradition. Archaeological findings show that in the Northern Yakutia, the first settlers came there not only with the representatives of the indige-nous peoples of the region, but also with Russian women. Keywords: Arctic, Russians, archeology, historical demography, comparative analysis, gender studies Information obtained from archaeological sources, as a method of knowledge of the cultures of the past allows reconstructing the everyday life of bygone eras to understand the role of women in the life of the first Russian settlements in the North-East of Russia at the end of 17th — beginning of the 18 th centuries. Constantly improving methods of archaeological research provide a possibility of more accurate reconstruction the past, not only very distant epochs, but also the times that seem to be quite well-known with the help of great amount of written sources. Such periods of time include the development of Siberia. Bright history of this process was actively studied and continues to attract the attention of specialists but ordinary life of that era, including women, still remains in shadows. Archaeological data is able to fill this gap, the data based on sources left by people unintentionally. Archaeological sites located in permafrost are, in this sense, the greatest value; here items and materials of organic origin are conserved — wood, bones, and textile, pelt used for a huge number of everyday items. Such findings are possible for Alazeisky and Nizhnekolymsky forts, studied archeological expedition of the YSU under the supervision of A.N. Alekseev in 1986 — Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 135 Picture 2. Beater and lopaska [1] Picture 3. Whorl and spindle [1] 1990. Research of the Nizhnekolymsky (Staduhinsky) fort was continued by the NPO group “Northern archeology – 1” under the supervision of G.P. Vizgalov in 2009 — 2011. Among the materials there are items that can give an idea of the life of Russian women in the north of Yakutia at the end of 17th — beginning of the 18 th centuries. All items associated with women could be divided into two categories: the tools for fiber processing, sewing and embroidery, and fro clothing and decorations. The first category is represented by a wide range of tools. These include combs, beater, spinning wheels, spindles and whorls found during the excavations of Alazeisky and Nizhne- kolymsky forts. All of these tools are fixed product of characteristic shape. Lopaska of spinning wheels, unlike Siberian and Russian ones, are made quite rude and have no decorations in the form of thread or paintings. Wooden spindles are every interesting. No analogues could be found. They look like large wooden flat wheels with circular or square opening in the center, with a diameter of 15 — 25 cm. The large size of these spindles is for the whorl and is intended to stabilize the spindles, to facilitate the work of thread spinner and to make smoother. Usually spindles are made small, of stone or clay, I think, all will remember the famous Ovruchsky spindles from the rose slate, so popular in Russia in the 10th — 12 th centuries. Wood material is lightweight. So, to achieve the desired effect, it was necessary to increase the diameter of the spindles. In connection with the above, the question arises: what kind of fiber used the women in the Arctic, where the where flax did not grow? The answer to this question is given by the archeological ma-terials and modern ethnographic observations. During the excava-tions at the Nizhnekolymsky fort in 1989, knitted socks and felted siskin made from dog hair were found. Modern women the down-steams of Indigirka and Kolyma rivers successfully spun wool from the dog’s hair and knit beautiful and very warm clothes. Since traces of weaving have not been found yet in both forts, it could be assumed that in the studied time spun wool used the same way. “Tools and materials for sewing and embroidery” represent the third category that includes needles, thimbles, needle bed and beads. The most numerous findings in this category are, of Arctic and North. 2015. N 20 136 Picture 4. Thimbles [1] Picture 5. Needle case [1] course, beads — they are found at both forts in amount more than 400 pieces. Beads are of good quality, of various calibers, mostly white, blue, green and black. Beads and different types of necklaces were usual for the North of Yakutia in the 17 th — beginning of the 18 centuries and were the subjects of exchange trade. Such kind of beads is mentioned by G.F. Miller as the most demanded at the local market [5, p. 530]. A part of the beads was found strung on a thread. So it is possible to talk about using them for embroidery in the settlements. Multi-colored glass beads are rare and have reached settlements as a part of jewelry, possibly, together with their owners. Found needles are made of iron; they are of different thickness — from the thick ones that were used for sewing leather, to thin bead needles found this year. Thimbles, found at Russian settlements of the 17 th — beginning of the 18 centuries, are metal, of different size: from true women small ones, to fairly large, suitable for men's fingers. A part of thimbles has a closed top, and a part — open. Needle cases are tubes made of cooper or bone (long bones of animals or birds); inside — a place for needles, pinned on a small piece of leather or fabric. In 2011, during the excavations of the Nizhnekolymsky wintering in a layer dating from the late 17 th century, well- preserved women headdress [2] was found. Its design is interesting because along it there is roll of tightly twisted red cloth covered by main tissue (Pic. 6). At first the headdress was interpreted as povoynick with a roller, which could be found in the book of D.K. Zelenin on traditional Russian women headdresses. Povoynik is considered as local tradition of the Velikoustyuzhsk County of the Vologda Province [3, p. 26]. The study of the collection of hats in the funds of Velikoustyuzhsk State Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve has shown that all traditional povoynik — “marhatka” of this region have the inside roll of fabrics, stuffed with tow linen, sewn in order to make a desired shape of the headdress (Pic. 7). At the same time, among all hats represented in the collection of Velikoustyuzhsk museum, the closest design to that found was the Kolyma volosnik. This headpiece is a soft round hat made of red silk; on the top of it — a roll of fabrics which is sewn “on vzderzhku” — a way the top of the headdress was made with an open crown. At the junction of the main part and the top was sewn from thick cushion of a roll of |
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