Article in Text and Talk · July 009 doi: 10. 1515/text. 2009. 024 Citations 11 reads 38 author: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects
Download 194.9 Kb. Pdf ko'rish
|
QuotationMarkersasIntertextualCodesinElectoralPropaganda
Participant 5 4 8% Total
53 31 66% 1 In the two right columns the concluding (total) num. are not a precise conclusion of the data since some of the quotations include a number of markers of the same kind. For in- stance: a full name and unique role are both used as references of the same source (‘Ehud Olmert, Mayor of Jerusalem’). Quotation markers as intertextual codes 463 Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM 5. Source and quotation types I found three characteristics relevant for the use of quotation markers: the political a‰liation of the source, the ideological stance of the quotation, and the argumentative status of the quotation. 5.1.
Political a‰liation of the source The sources quoted in the corpus are of three types: Representatives of the addressing party (for instance: Ehud Barak, leader of Israel Achat, in its text). Opponents from the opposing party (Ehud Barak in a Likud text). External sources that are not a‰liated with any party (Bill Clinton in a Likud text). It should be noted that only politicians from the Likud and Israel Achat are quoted in texts of these parties. In the broadcasts source markers signify all kinds of speaker switching, including switches within a given text. Since they are not specific to quo- tations and are not even used in all of them, source markers do not indi- cate an intertextual shift to a pre-text. I will show (Sections 6–7) that the parties use source markers to adopt a source as part of their positively regarded ‘‘we’’ group, to exclude it from the negatively regarded ‘‘they’’ group, or to establish it as neutral. 5.2.
Ideological stance of the quotations The quotations in the corpus are also of three types: Supportive in relation to the ideology of the addressing party. Each party presents itself as acting in the interests of the Jewish people and the State of Israel, therefore supporting it is presented as positive. Hostile in relation to the ideology of the addressing party and, therefore, presented as negative for the people and the state. Ostensibly neutral in relation to the ideology of the addressing party though actually supporting. All the quotations from newspapers, and only these, are presented as without any underlying ideology—theoreti- cally reliable testimonies of reality. This distinction, which reflects the parties’ perspective on the ideologi- cal content of the quotations, is encoded in the use of speech and circum- stance markers, making them inherently intertextual as well. Speech and circumstance markers, contrary to source markers, are used only in rela- tion to quotations, therefore necessarily signifying an intertextual shift: speech markers do this by highlighting a quote from a pre-text; circum- stance markers achieve the same e¤ect by highlighting the di¤erence or ‘‘otherness’’ of the pre-text with respect to the text. As we will see (Sec- 464
Pnina Shukrun-Nagar Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM tions 6–7), use of these markers to signify a partition between linguistic texts simultaneously emphasizes a partition between ideologies. 5.3. Argumentative status of the quotations All the quotations in the corpus serve to support the claim that the addressing party is better for the citizens. Nevertheless, some of the quo- tations are textually linked to an explicit claim and fulfill a role of corrob- orative data (Toulmin 1958). In order to give the impression that a quo- tation reinforces the claim’s validity, the parties use specific speech and circumstance markers. The covert use of some markers to emphasize a corroborative function is also an intertextual characteristic of these signs. 6. Quotation marking I found that the ideological stance of the quotation (supportive/neutral/ hostile) has the most significant e¤ect on the linguistic marking of the quotation; I will therefore focus on this criterion. In addition, I will exam- ine how linguistic marking is influenced by the reciprocal relations of the ideological stance of the quotation, the party a‰liation of the source (representative/external/hostile), and the corroborative status of some quotations. 6.1.
Supportive quotations Quotations that ideologically support the addressing party were produced by all three types of sources: representative, external, opposing. As a rule, supportive quotations are characterized by few, if any, speech and cir- cumstance markers. As explained (Section 5.2), both types of markers form a partition between the quoting text and the quotation, albeit di¤er- ently: speech markers highlight the quotation act, thereby emphasizing the intertextual shift from text to pre-text; in contrast, circumstance markers highlight the unique characteristics of the speech event, thereby emphasizing the otherness of the pre-text with regard to the text. When neither the intertextual shift nor the ‘‘otherness’’ of the pre-text are linguistically marked, the distinction between text and pre-text be- comes blurred, which is likely to cause the impression that the quotation is in fact an integral part of the addressing party’s text. This occurs in the superficial sense of text, linguistically, and more importantly—in the deeper sense—ideologically (see Kristeva 1986: 36; Payne 1993: 178). As opposed to speech and circumstance markers, source markers that do not signify an intertextual shift (Section 5.1) are used in over half Quotation markers as intertextual codes 465
Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM
of the supportive quotations, often with high frequency. The presence or absence of source marking and its nature are mainly influenced by the po- litical a‰liation of the source and the argumentative importance of the quotation. According to the Iconic Principle (Kirtchuk 2000), the length of the lin- guistic marker a¤ects the way in which it is perceived. Therefore, a full name is more emotive than a surname alone and multiple references are perceived as more emotive than a single reference (Perelman 1983: 35). Thus when the source is a candidate for the post of prime minister or, al- ternatively, an opponent speaking in favor of the addressing party, he is usually marked several times by his full name and highlighted by visual means, too (photos, clips). In contrast, when the sources are external or are representatives that are not party leaders, their quotations share an absence of source markers, probably in order to avoid highlighting them at the expense of the parties’ candidates. Corroborative supportive quotations are unique in two characteriza- tions that reinforce their argumentative force: first, sources are marked by role, status, and a‰liation group, which present them as authorities; second, quoting is marked only by the participle ‘‘says’’, which does not create a distinction in time or ideology between pre-text and text. Among its relevant interpretations are vagueness in time and repetition of the action (Fleischmann 1990; Nir and Roeh 1987; Sakita 2002; Sa¨ring 1998; Tobin 1988, 1989). To sum up, supportive quotations are usually characterized by non- marking of the speech and the circumstances and by marking the source only in selected quotations. The absence of speech and circumstance markers contributes to the impression that the quotation is part of the party’s linguistic text and, more importantly, of its ideological text. The parties may use speech markers to increase the argumentative force of the quotation, but without discernibly distancing it from their text. Source markings, that do not indicate an intertextual shift, are used only if the parties are interested in highlighting the source. 6.2. Neutral quotations As noted (Section 5.2), all the quotations from newspapers are presented in the campaign as neutral reflections of the truth. This has obvious impli- cations for quotation marking, which consists of a single source reference by name and temporal markers with the newspaper cutting shown on the screen. All these create an impression of minimal intervention by the par- ties and increase the impression of neutrality of the newspapers. 466 Pnina Shukrun-Nagar Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM
As explained (Section 5.2), the use of speech and circumstance markers is likely to create a distinction between text and pre-text. Although tem- poral markers indicate the ‘‘otherness’’ of the quotation, they are neces- sary to testify to its credibility, thereby enabling the addressing party to rely on its content. In Israel it is customary to refer to a newspaper by name and exact date of publication. Only this marking is likely to be per- ceived as a full obligation to the credibility of the quotation. In some of the ‘‘neutral’’ quotations, the date of publication is designated within a broad time frame, ranging from ‘‘last week’’ to ‘‘during the last three years.’’ Obviously, the wider the time frame, the more likely it is to be performing a primarily emotional role rather than an argumentative one. As expected, whenever quotations are corroborative the parties take care to indicate the date of each quoted newspaper. This, along with the newspaper’s name, enables a transfer of authority from quoter to quoted (Perelman 1983: 109), i.e., from the biased parties to the newspapers, pre- sented as neutral. In summary, in ‘‘neutral’’ quotations the parties use a uniform o‰cial marking of the source: a single reference of the newspaper’s name and temporal markers. They thereby create the impression that the quotations are credible, neutral, and worthy of being considered a testimony to the just nature of the addressing party’s ideological text. Exact publication dates of quoted newspapers are presented consistently only when quota- tion credibility is important for its corroborative function. 6.3.
Hostile quotations Quotations hostile to the ideology of the addressing party were produced by two types of sources: external and opponent. All these quotations are characterized by multiple and varied markers of all kinds. The frequent use of multiple speech and circumstance markers emphasizes the separa- tion between text and quotation. Most of the markers are unique to hos- tile quotations: extremely emotive adjectives, past tense verbs, participant markers, background markers, etc. Source markers in hostile quotations are also unique in their particularly high frequency (as many as four per quotation) and the use of surnames for reference. When the source is an opponent, markers of all kinds are more fre- quent and more emotive, due to the special importance of excluding the source from the ‘‘we’’ group of the addressing party and to the ideological separation between their texts. Multiple markers (especially temporal and locative) also characterize all the corroborative hostile quotations in order to reinforce their argumentative force. Quotation markers as intertextual codes 467
Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM
As a rule, external sources (such as the Syrian foreign minister) are not independently significant in the electoral discourse. Rather, their impor- tance lies in their relations with the political opponents. This has two im- plications. First, external sources are marked in a rather functional way: those that are well-known are referred to only by surname or are not mentioned at all, and those that are seldom or never part of the politi- cal discourse are referred to by role or full name. Second, there is a dis- cernible attempt to link the negatively presented contents of the external sources’ quotations with the political opponents, rather than with the sources. In other words, the quotations of external sources serve predom- inantly to distance the political opponents (and not the sources) from the ‘‘we’’ group of the party and to form a boundary between the ideological texts of the various sides. For example, the Likud quoted comedienne Tiki Dayan speaking against Likud supporters in an arrogant way: ‘‘We’re talking about an- other nation . . . the lowest of the low, ri¤ra¤ . . . ’’. While she, the source, was mentioned only once, Ehud Barak, the leader of the opposing party, was mentioned in the context of this quotation several times by circum- stance markers: These are the arrogant insulting words of Tiki Dayan at a convention supporting Barak, in the presence of Barak . . . Barak was there; Barak clapped; Barak laughed; Barak did not say a word, a man like this cannot be Prime Minister. In this way, the party is creating a most negative image of Barak as iden- tified with the discriminative content of the quotation. Multiple references to opponents whose quotations are hostile find ex- pression both in the number of quotations in which they are executed and in the number of markers per quotation. The primary contribution of the markers is in emphasizing the opponent’s identity in order to condemn him. The opponents are marked by full names or by surnames alone. In both cases the parties construct negative emotionality of the references by textual links (Shukrun 1998; Shukrun-Nagar 2001) and by extralinguistic means (music, photos, etc.). Nevertheless, there is a di¤erence between full names and surnames in the degree of emphasis on the source, and since surnames mark only sources whose quotations are hostile, they could be seen as expressing disrespect for the source as a public figure. With regard to speech markers, there is a noticeable use of verbs in the past tense, especially when the source is an opponent. The use of the past tense emphasizes the intertextual shift from the text to the pre-text, there- by highlighting the partition between them. Another noticeable character- istic common to hostile quotations whose sources are opponents is fre- quent use of negative lexical markers (verbs and nominals) to define the 468
Pnina Shukrun-Nagar Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM contents of the quotations: ‘‘a silly declaration,’’ ‘‘shouting,’’ ‘‘these words are shocking,’’ etc. The use of negative speech markers in relation to opponents’ quotations was also found in Israeli newspapers and radio news (Nir and Roeh 1987, 1992), serving to reflect ideological distance from ‘‘the enemies of the State’’ or ‘‘socially di¤erent or abnormal, who can legitimately be doubted’’ (1987: 24). Even use of the inherently neutral verb ‘‘said’’ contributes to increasing the negative emotionality of the hostile quotations. In addition to its past tense, the verb is contained in the question ‘‘who said . . . ?’’, for instance: ‘‘Who said: ‘I do not express dovish views because I want to win the elec- tion’?’’. This question is a complex one (Copi 1977), as it contains the pre- supposition that the quoted content was indeed voiced by someone (obvi- ously Ehud Barak, as his photo is shown on the screen concurrent to the question). Moreover, in Israel the question ‘‘who said’’ constitutes a pop- ular intertextual pattern in school lessons and quizzes evoking common knowledge. Therefore the genre shift inherent in this formulaic use also contributes to emotionality. Another interesting finding is the rhetorical exploitation of the par- ticiple ‘‘says’’ in opponents’ hostile quotations fulfilling a corroborative role. This marker doesn’t contribute to the distinction between text and pre-text in terms of tense. Nonetheless, it is repeated several times while re-broadcasting the quotation, thus helping to create the impression that the quoted content is repeated by the source. Naturally this has a poten- tial to increase negative emotionality of both the quotation and its source. Another unique characteristic of hostile quotations is the use of quota- tion marks and colons in subtitles on the initiative of the addressing party, and not just as part of a photographed cutting shown on screen. Hostile quotations uttered by opponents possess a typically high fre- quency of circumstance markers, especially when they are corroborative. A minority of the markers are participant and background markers, which primarily increase the negative emotionality of the quotations, thereby emphasizing the partition between text and pre-text. However, most of the markers are temporal and locative; their primary contribution is to re- inforce credibility of the quotations. This is crucial since one may suspect that the hostile quotations attributed by the parties to their opponents might be fictitious or no longer relevant. Temporal markers denote the exact date of origination of the quotation, or a short time frame (‘‘this week,’’ ‘‘in the previous week’’). As explained (Section 6.2), the contribu- tion of time frames to credibility is less than that of a precise date. All the corroborative quotations also include locative markers, such as ‘‘a personal meeting with Gideon Levy’’ (a program on which Ehud Barak appeared). A combination of locative and temporal markers Quotation markers as intertextual codes 469
Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM
(particularly exact dates), while showing the source speaking, may be considered evidence of maximal commitment to credibility of the address- ing parties. Especially interesting are multiple markers referring to the broadcast location, particularly the repetition of the marker ‘‘on television’’ twice and even four times in relation to the same quotation. This marker is part of an intertextual pattern ‘‘Netanyahu on television’’ which is fre- quently used in the Israel Achat campaign. For example: ‘‘according to Netanyahu on television, our economic situation is wonderful . . . but in reality, two hundred and thirty thousand people are unemployed . . . ’’. Because of the repetition of the marker on television in relation to many quotations of Netanyahu, and because of the consistent contrast between this marker and ‘‘in reality,’’ a claim emerges in the campaign whereby everything Netanyahu says on television is refuted. Forming a generaliza- tion by means of multiple examples is explained by Perelman (1983: 86) in the following way: first, the speech maker presents a number of irrefut- able examples intended to validate the proposed rule; then, once the rule is confirmed, the examples later presented are based on that rule. The damage to the credibility of Netanyahu’s television appearances had sig- nificant rhetorical importance because of his previous image as a media magician. Generally speaking, hostile quotations are characterized by a high fre- quency of source, speech, and circumstance markers used to encode the addressing party’s severe reservations about the quotations and their sources. Most of the markers are unique in the high degree of emotional- ity due to their content or manner of use. However, it has been found that the frequency of markers, their grammatical forms, and their semantic components were directly influenced by the political a‰liation of the source and by a corroborative role of the quotations: opponents were dis- cernibly more emotionally distanced from the ‘‘we’’ group than the exter- nal sources; and corroborative quotations are unique in using temporal and locative markers to increase credibility. The following section is devoted to the analysis of two case studies, illustrating the distinction and claims made so far. 7. Textual discussion 7.1. Text A
As explained (segment 3) the broadcast texts are composed of spoken seg- ments, written segments, visual means, and audio means. Table 2 de- 470 Pnina Shukrun-Nagar Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM
Table 2. Text A
Speaker Spoken text Written text Audio means Visual means Anouncer
The Netanyahu government is stuck on every issue. The Netanyahu government is stuck on every issue Netanyahu in his seat at the Israeli parliament. The chairs around him are empty. Therefore, Netanyahu is trying to divide the country that is unified on the issue of Jerusalem. Netanyahu is dividing the country that is unified on the issue of Jerusalem Ehud Olmert I have no doubt (videotaped) Olmert speaking in a classroom of Russian immigrants. that Ehud Barak is dedicated to the unity (videotaped) Ehud Olmert Likud, Mayor of Jerusalem and integrity of Jerusalem, the capital of Israel (spoken) Pleasant
View of East Jerusalem Ehud Barak united under our sovereignty, the eternal capital of Israel, period. (videotaped) Cheering and clapping Background Barak giving a speech in East Jerusalem. Ehud Olmert and he will not participate (spoken) Music
Photo of Barak giving a speech.
in any activity that will compromise the unity of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. (videotaped) Olmert speaking in a classroom of Russian immigrants. Ehud Barak Israel united around a united Jerusalem, no one will succeed in splitting the nation on this issue. (spoken)
Barak in di¤erent locations in Jerusalem. Quot ation
mark ers
as inter
textual co des 471 Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM scribes an Israel Achat text, broadcast between 27 April and 2 May 1999. Each line indicates a time unit. This segment is composed of an unknown announcer’s words and of two quotations: one of Ehud Barak, then leader of the addressing party, Israel Achat, and the other of Ehud Olmert, at the time member of the rival Likud party. There are two types of articulated text: spoken—which is heard, but the speaker is not seen, and videotaped—where the speaker is both heard and seen. The announcer’s text is always spoken, while quoted texts may be- long to either type. Transcriptions of the articulated texts utilize punctua- tion marks to reflect breaks in the speech: a period ( . ) represents a full stop, a semi-colon ( ; ) is for a medium-length break, and a comma ( , ) for a short break. The written text is copied from the screen exactly as originally presented, including punctuation marks. The segment refers to Barak’s commitment to the unity of Jerusalem. While the entire city of Jerusalem is the capital of Israel, the political sta- tus of its eastern part is controversial. As sites holy to Jews and Muslims (as well as Christians) are situated in East Jerusalem, both Arabs and Israelis claim it as their own. The Israeli left-wing, and particularly the radical left, comprises a mainly secular population that is willing to give East Jerusalem to the Palestinians. The political right-wingers, in con- trast, see Jerusalem as the religious, spiritual, and national-historical cen- ter of the Jewish people and cannot imagine giving it up. Since 1996, the unity of the city has become a major issue in Israeli electoral discourse; the right-wing Likud is not ‘‘suspected’’ of possibly agreeing to give up East Jerusalem; however, part of the Israeli public thinks that the moder- ate left-wing Israel Achat may be willing to do so. The issue is often brought up by the Likud, and the above segment is a reaction to that. The segment begins with the claim verbalized by the announcer, repre- senting Israel Achat: ‘‘The Netanyahu government is stuck on every issue. Therefore, Netanyahu is trying to divide the country that is unified on the issue of Jerusalem.’’ A slightly (but rhetorically) di¤erent phrasing of this claim is shown on the screen, originally in red. By these means Netan- yahu is marked as a rival of the ‘‘we’’ group which, according to the text, includes not only the addressing party, but the entire nation. Netan- yahu’s name is attributed with negative emotionality by textual links to negative signs (‘‘stuck,’’ ‘‘to divide/dividing’’) and by nonverbal means: the claim written on the screen in red, and Netanyahu seen sitting alone in the parliament. The rest of the segment focuses on proving that Israel Achat does not plan to divide Jerusalem. For this purpose quotations from Olmert and Barak are split and presented alternately. Both quotations support the 472 Pnina Shukrun-Nagar Brought to you by | Ben Gurion University of the Negev Authenticated | 132.72.130.12 Download Date | 3/12/14 1:30 PM
|
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling