Б. С. Хаймович, Б. И. Роговская теоретическая грамматика английского языка

part and depart, give and forgive. Besides, together with their lexical morphemes, de-, for-, -er, -less make units whose co-occurrence with grammat­ical morphemes is similar to that of simple lexical morphe­mes. Cf. home — homes, reader — readers; boy — boy's, reader — reader's; give — gives — giving — shall give, for­give — forgives — forgiving — shall forgive.
Later (§ 30) we shall speak of other properties that morphe­mes like de-, for-, -er, -less have in common with grammati­cal morphemes, on the one hand, and lexical morphemes, on the other.
Owing to their double or intermediate nature, we shall call them lexico-grammatical morphemes.

§ 14. De-, for-, -er, -less are bound morphemes. English possesses also free lexico-grammatical morphemes, or lexico-grammatical word-morphemes.

Units of the type stand up, give in, find out resemble analytical words in each having the form of a combination of words and the content of a word. But there is an essential difference between shall give and give in. Shall does not in­troduce any lexical meaning, while in does. Shall give differs from give grammatically, while give in differs form give lexically. In this respect give in is similar to forgive. In resembles for- also in being associated with the class of lexical morphemes attaching the same set of grammatical morphemes: -s, -ing, shall, will, etc. Cf. gives in, forgives; giving in, for­giving; will give in, will forgive.
There is much similarity in origin and function between the second elements of stand up, break out¹ and the so-called separable prefixes of the corresponding German verbs auf-stehen — stand auf, ausbrechen — brach aus. All of them are lexico-grammatical morphemes. But in German they are only partly free, whereas in English they are wholly free morphemes, or word-morphemes.
The extensive use of lexico-grammatical word-morphemes is, as L. P. Smith puts it, "one of the most striking idiosyn­crasies" ² of English. It is an inalienable part of its analytical structure.
Units of the give in type containing lexico-grammatical word-morphemes will be treated here as composite words.
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¹ They have been regarded as postpositions (B. A. Ilyish), adverbs (A. I. Smirnitsky), postfixes (Y. A. Zhluktenko).
²Quoted from С. Б. Б e p л и з о н. Сочетания типа make up, make for в современном английском языке.

§ 15. A word has at least one lexical morpheme. It may also have grammatical and lexico-grammatical morphemes. The lexical morpheme is regarded as the root of the word, all the other bound morphemes as affixes: prefixes, suffixes and infixes.

Position is not the only difference between prefixes and suffixes in English. Suffixes play a much greater role in the grammatical structure of the language. First, they include grammatical morphemes besides lexico-grammatical ones, whereas prefixes are only lexico-grammatical. Secondly, the lexico-grammatical suffixes are more closely connected with grammatical morphemes than prefixes are. The addition of a suffix to the root mostly changes the set of grammatical morphemes attached, which is not typical of prefixes. Cf. teach and teacher, on the one hand, give and forgive, on the other. In this respect lexico-grammatical word-morphemes resemble prefixes, not suffixes.

§ 16. Words without their grammatical morphemes (most­ly suffixes, often called endings or inflections) are known as stems. A stem may consist of the root alone, as in the words boy, rooms, moved, or it may be more complicated, as in boyish, remove, improvement.

We may say that the stem boyish- has been derived from the stem boy- by adding the suffix -ish, remove- from move-by means of the prefix re-. In such cases we speak of stem-building by affixation. But affixation is not the only means of stem-building in English. The stem of the noun strength has been derived from the stem of the adjective strong not only by affixation (the suffix -th) but also by vowel change (/o/ > /e/).

§ 17. As already mentioned (§ 2), a word is not just a com­bination of morphemes. Apart from the naming power that unites all the morphemes of a word like revolutionary and turns them into a higher unit, they are also united by the word-stress which is an essential part of the structure of a word.

If we assume that the verb stem transport- has been derived from the noun stem transport-, we have to count stress change among the stem-building elements of the verb.

§ 18. In accordance with their structure the following four types of stems are usually distinguished:

1. Simple, containing only the root, as in day, dogs, write, wanted, etc.
2. Derivative, containing affixes or other stem-building elements, as in boyhood, rewrite, strength, speech (cf. speak) transport, etc.
3. Compound, containing two or more roots, as in white­wash, pickpocket, appletree, motor-car, brother-in-law, etc.
Note: The stems of blue-eyed, lion-hearted, etc. are both compound and derivative and are sometimes called compound derivatives'.
4. Composite, containing free lexico-grammatical word-morphemes or otherwise having the form of a combination of words, as in give up, two hundred and twenty-five, at last, in spite of, etc.