Б. С. Хаймович, Б. И. Роговская теоретическая грамматика английского языка

Б. С. ХАЙМОВИЧ, Б. И. РОГОВСКАЯ
ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО «ВЫСШАЯ ШКОЛА» Москва 1967
CONTENTS
Morphology
Introduction 3
The Structure of Words 4
The Classification of Words 7
The Combinability of Words 11
Parts of Speech . 13
The Noun 22
The Category of Number 24
The Category of Case 26
Noun Grammemes in Speech 29
The Adjective 33
Adjective Grammemes in Speech 36
The Adverb 38
The Numeral 41
Pronouns 44
The Verb 54
The Category of Voice 58
The Category of Order 60
The Category of Aspect 62
The Finites. 64
The Category of Mood 64
The Indicative Mood 66
The Category of Tense 66
The Category of Posteriority 68
The Category of Person 69
The Category of Number 70
The Subjunctive Mood 70
The Imperative Mood 72
Verb Grammemes in Speech 73
The Verbids 85
The Infinitive 87
The Participle 88
The Gerund 89
The Adlink 93
The Modal Words 94
The Response Words 95
The Interjection 95
The Preposition 96
The Conjunction 98
The Article . . . . . . . 100
The Particle 101
SOME GENERAL REMARKS
§ 1. In this book the phoneme, the morpheme, the word, and the sentence are regarded as the basic units of language and speech. The definitions of these units have never been generally agreed on, yet following are some brief functional characteristics.
The phoneme is the smallest distinctive unit. The phoneme /b/¹, for instance, is the only distinctive feature marking the difference between tale /teil/ and table /teibl/.
The morpheme ist the smallest meaningful unit. Un-fail-ing-ly, for instance, contains four meaningful parts, i. e. four morphemes.
The word is the smallest naming unit. Though the words terror, terrible, terrific, terrify contain more than one morpheme each, they are the smallest units naming a certain feeling, certain properties, and a certain action respectively.
The sentence is the smallest communication unit. It rains is a sentence because it contains a communication (see Syntax, § 379).
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¹ The slant lines are used to indicate that the enclosed symbols represent phonemes.


§ 2. The phoneme, the morpheme, the word and the sen­tence are units of different levels of language structure. The phoneme is a unit of the lowest level, the sentence — of the highest.
A unit of a higher level usually contains one or more units of the preceding level. But the higher unit cannot be reduced to the sum of those lower units since it has a quality not in­herent in the units of the lower level. For instance, the meaning of the morpheme -ly is not inherent in the two phonemes it contains. The naming power of the word length is not inherent in the two morphemes it contains. The communi­cating power of the sentence It rams is not inherent in the two words it contains.
Conversely, a combination of units of a certain level does not make a unit of a higher level unless the combination acquires the properties of the units of that higher level. The combination of phonemes /dit/ does not make a morpheme as long as it is meaningless. The combination of morphemes -ing-ly is not a word since it names nothing. The combination of words of the teacher is not a sentence as long as it communi­cates nothing.
On the other hand, a single unit of a given level becomes a higher level unit on acquiring the proper qualities. For instance, the phoneme /o:/ makes a morpheme when it becomes meaningful, as in the word aw-ful. When the morpheme aw­acquires naming power, it becomes a word awe. When the word awe makes a communication, it is a sentence, as in the dialogue:

• 
  What feeling did you experience?
  
• 
  Awe.
  

Thus, with regard to the level of language structure there is no difference between a single unit and a combination of units. They are to be studied by the same branches of linguis­tics. If phonology (phonemics), for example, studies the phonemes of a language, it is also expected to study the combinations of phonemes in the language. The branch of linguistics that studies morphemes must also study the com­binations of morphemes. If morphology deals with words, it should also deal with combinations of words. ¹ Syntax must treat not only sentences but combinations of sentences as well.
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¹ This view is not shared by many linguists. In most grammars words are regarded as the object of morphology, while combinations of words are discussed in syntax, together with sentences. A. Hill thinks that combinations (sequences) of units are "areas lying between the levels. Between phonemics and morphemics is the area of phonotactics, the sequences of phonemes. Between morpheme and word is the area of morphotactics or the sequences of morphemes. Between the word and phrase (and clause) is logotactics. These areas have not as yet received like amounts of attention

§ 3. The units of each level can be analysed as to their inner structure, the classes they belong to in the language system (otherwise, their paradigmatic relations), and the combinations they form in speech (or their syntagmatic re­lations).

When studying the structure of a unit, we find out its components, mostly units of the next lower level, their arrange­ment and their functions as parts of the unit.
For instance, when analysing the structure of the word unreadable, it is not enough to say that the word contains three morphemes arranged in a definite order. It is also ne­cessary to state the function of each morpheme, i. e. its relation to the whole word, the part it plays in making the word.
The units of each level divide into groups or classes whose members have certain components in common. For instance, the phonemes /b, d, g/ are united by their being voiced and plosive. The words deeper, longer, sweeter are united by the morpheme -er with the 'comparative' meaning.
As a group /b, d, g/ is part of the phonemic system of the English language, but in speech the whole group is not used together. Each member of this group forms certain combina­tions with other phonemes, like /bi-/, /be-/, /bu-/, etc. The group deep — deeper — deepest is part of the morphological system of the English language. But in speech each member of the group is used separately and not always in combination with the same words. Cf. as deep as ..., deeper than ..., the deepest of ...

§ 4. As we are often obliged to use the terms language and speech, we must have a working definition of these terms, however imperfect and incomplete. We shall assume then that the structure of various units and the classes they form (paradigmatic relations) are the sphere of language, while the combinations the same units form in the process of communication (syntagmatic relations) are the sphere of speech.

It goes without saying that language and speech are inter­dependent and interpenetrating. The combinability of every unit depends upon its properties as an element of the system of a language (see §§ 34, 35). On the other hand, the properties of every unit develop in the process of speech. Combinations of units may become stable and develop into new units, as in the case of motor-bicycle, has written, at last, etc.

§ 5. The structure, classification and combinability of phonemes is studied by a branch of linguistics called phonology.

The structure, classification and combinability of words is the object of morphology.
Syntax deals with the structure, classification and combina­bility of sentences.
Note. The structure, classification and com­binability of morphemes have not yet been studied properly. This accounts for the fact that so far there exists no special branch of linguistics dealing with the morpheme ¹, and all the information available is usually included in morphology.
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¹ Some authors recognize only two sets of language units: phonemes and morphemes. The branch of linguistics studying morphemes — morphemics — is then understood to cover both morphology and syntax. Morphemics then is another word for grammar. See, for instance, the following: "Morphemics, which includes everything in language (nar­rowly defined) from the smallest unit of meaning to the construction of the sentence, takes its name from a useful tool, the morpheme. The first stages of morphemics, up to syntax, are called morphology".
MORPHOLOGY