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181 [276] LINNAEUS
LINNAEUS [276] [213] and emerging as the founder of modern taxonomy. In the first place he developed a clear and concise style of describing species that pointed out exactly how each differed from other species. In the sec ond place he popularized binomial no menclature, in which each type of living thing is given first a generic name (for the group to which it belongs) and then a specific name for itself. Linnaeus’ book, published originally in seven large pages, had expanded to twenty-five hun dred pages by the tenth edition. Linnaeus’ passion for classification amounted almost to a disease. He was not content merely to list the species and collect them into related groups, or gen era. He grouped related genera into classes, and related classes into orders. (Later Cuvier [396] was to extend this notion by grouping related orders into phyla.) Linnaeus, despite his conser vative piety, dared even to include man in his classification, giving the human species the name of Homo sapiens (“Man, wise”) though he confined this classification to man’s body alone. He considered his soul to be outside the ani mal kingdom. He included the orangutan in the same genus with man as Homo troglodytes (“Man, cave-dwelling”), but this did not endure. He also classified whales and re lated species as mammals, thus finally es tablishing a point of view first advanced by Aristotle [29] two thousand years earlier. While classification is perhaps not the highest function of science, it can be in dispensable in a diverse and amorphous field of study. It was only after Linnaeus had imposed order (somewhat arti ficially, to be sure) upon life, that bi ologists could search confidently for great generalizations. The manner in which the classification began with large groups, divided into smaller groups, then still smaller groups, ending finally with individual species, gave the system of liv ing organisms the appearance of a tree. The very existence of such a tree of life helped activate and sharpen the hazy no tions of an evolution of living things from simple beginnings to modern com plexity. Such thoughts can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, but after Linnaeus the search for some way to sys tematize those thoughts began in earnest. Linnaeus himself fought the whole idea of evolution stubbornly, insisting that all species were created separately in the beginning, that no new species had ever been formed since Creation and that none had ever become extinct. He may have begun to waver toward the end of his life, but in any case his opposition could not stem the tide. His own view had affected his philosophy of classification, for he was not concerned in ordering the world of living things to show family relationships that he did not believe existed. He wanted only to differentiate the various species in the clearest way he could, so his classifica tion was an artificial one based on the external characteristics most obvious to the eye. Men who followed him, like Cuvier, Jussieu [345], and Candolle [418], kept the principles of Linnaean classification but changed the details to make it a natu ral one showing relationships. Once that was done, more followed inevitably. Linnaeus had begun a train of thinking that led inexorably to Darwin [554], and the rigidly orthodox Swedish botanist could have done nothing to stay that. When Linnaeus finally returned to Sweden he entered medical practice and in 1741 was appointed to the chair of medicine at Uppsala. One year later he exchanged it for the chair of botany. He spent the remainder of his life in teach ing. He was an excellent teacher, inspir ing his students with the same ardor that had moved him, for he sent them out (and they went gladly) through the world in search of new forms of life. It is estimated that one out of three died in the search. In 1761—by an act antedated to 1757—he was ennobled and given the right to call himself Carl von Linné and was appointed a member of the Swedish House of Nobles. He died in Uppsala Cathedral, where he is interred. After his death, his books and collec tions were bought by the rich English naturalist Sir J. E. Smith, who took them
[277] BUFFON
BUFFON [277] to England. There they served as the basis of the famous English biological as sociation called the Linnaean Society, which was founded in 1788, ten years after Linnaeus’ death. There is a famous story (dramatic, but untrue) that the Swedish navy sent a warship to try to capture the ship that was carrying these Swedish treasures to England. In 1866, changes were reported in the lunar crater named for him; these changes have not yet been satisfactorily explained. [277] BUFFON, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de (byoo-fohn7) French naturalist
tember 7, 1707 Died: Paris, April 16, 1788 Buffon came of a well-to-do family. He traveled extensively and was able to indulge his taste for learning. He studied both law at Dijon and medicine at An gers, obtaining a degree in the former in 1726. A duel he fought in Angers made it seem wise to him to get out of town. He fell in with a young Englishman at Nantes and they traveled together, in cluding a trip to England. Buffon was strongly impressed by En gland’s upsurge of science and translated Newton’s [231] work on the calculus in order to practice his English. He was in terested in the work of Stephen Hales [249] on plants and this too he trans lated. He also conducted experiments to see if Archimedes [47] could really have burned Roman ships with lenses focusing the sun’s rays; he decided it was possible. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1730, while he was in England, to the Academy of Sciences in 1733, and in 1739 became keeper of the Jardin du Roi, the French botanical gardens, and was thus led into a permanent interest in natural history. Beginning in 1752 and continuing for fifty years, volume after volume of his Natural History appeared. There were forty-four volumes alto gether, written with various collabo rators, the last eight volumes being pub lished after his death. The treatise was written clearly and at tractively for the general public and was the first modem work to attempt to treat the whole of nature. It was deservedly popular but was nevertheless better as popular writing than as science, for Buffon wanted to see grand designs in nature even when it meant doing vio lence to details. As a result he had a ten dency to superficiality and too-easy gen eralization. In short, there was rather a touch of the Pliny [61] in him. Buffon was groping toward a concept of evolution in his work. He was temper amentally unsuited to the painstaking work of a Linnaeus [276], which made it all the easier for him to see life as a grand movement. He noted that some creatures had parts that were useless to them (such as the lateral toes of the pig) and from this deduced that parts might degenerate and whole animals do the same. An ape might be considered, then, an imperfect or corrupted man, a don key an imperfect horse, and so on. These ideas were carried further by Erasmus Darwin [308]. Buffon also advanced generalized no tions, more rhetoric than reasoned sci ence perhaps, concerning the slow devel opment of the earth. He suggested, in 1745, that the earth might have been created by the catastrophic collision of a massive body (he called it a comet) with the sun. The view was outdistanced by the nebular hypothesis of Kant [293] and Laplace [347], but a form of it was to make a strong showing in the first half of the twentieth century. Buffon also felt the earth might have been in existence for as much as seventy-five thousand years, with life itself having come into existence perhaps forty thousand years ago. This was the first attempt in Chris tian Europe to probe back beyond the six-thousand-year limit apparently set by the Book of Genesis, something soon to reach a climax with Hutton [297]. Buffon also felt that the earth might last ninety thousand years before cooling completely. These evolutionary views concerning earth and man, although cautiously phrased, were daring in an epoch when the view was that earth and man were
[278] HALLER
MARGGRAF [279] created whole and at once some six thousand years before. Nevertheless Bufion was a diplomatic person who knew when to recant any views that aroused too much opposition. He had only minor difficulties with authority and was eventually made a count by Louis XV. His son was less fortunate and was guillotined during the French Revolu tion.
[278] HALLER, Albrecht von (hahl'er) Swiss physiologist Born: Berne, October 16, 1708 Died: Berne, December 17, 1777 Haller, the son of a lawyer, was forced into quiet amusements as a child, be cause of ill health, and quickly showed himself to be a prodigy. He began writ ing on scholarly subjects at the age of eight, prepared a Greek dictionary at ten, and kept right on going. He studied under Boerhaave [248], whose favorite student he was, and eventually became a physician with wide-ranging tastes, be ginning his practice in 1729 when he was only twenty-one. He was interested in botany, among other things, and collected plants, even tually writing a large book on the flora of Switzerland. For seventeen years, from 1736 to 1753, he taught at the University of Gottingen as professor of medicine, anatomy, surgery, and botany. Then he retired to his hometown to write an encyclopedic summary of medicine, and various romances in addition, to say nothing of didactic poetry (rather better than that of Erasmus Darwin [308]) and works on politics. His most important contribution to science was his research on muscles and nerves, published in 1766. Until his time it was believed that nerves were hollow and carried a mysterious spirit or fluid, which was never demonstrated. Even Boerhaave, a great rationalist otherwise, made this concession to mysticism. Haller, however, believing in no spirit that could not be seen or worked with, stuck to the experimental observations. He recognized that muscles were irrita ble, that is, that a slight stimulus to the muscle would produce a sharp contrac tion. He also showed that a stimulus to a nerve would produce a sharp contraction in the muscle to which it was attached. The nerve was the more irritable and required the smaller stimulus. Haller judged that it was nervous stimulation rather than direct muscular stimulation that controlled muscular movement. He also showed that tissues themselves do not experience a sensation but that the nerves channel and carry the impulses that produce the sensation. Furthermore Haller showed that nerves all led to the brain or the spinal cord, which were thus clearly indicated as the centers of sense perception and responsive action. He experimented by stimulating or damaging various parts of the animal brain and then noting the type of action or paralysis that resulted. Haller may therefore be considered the founder of modem neurology. In later life, Haller seems to have be come an opium addict, as a result of using opium to counteract insomnia. [279] MARGGRAF, Andreas Sigjsmund (mahrk'grahf) German chemist Born: Berlin, March 3, 1709 Died: Berlin, August 7, 1782 Marggraf was the son of the apothe cary to the Prussian court, and he him self had a kind of itinerant education studying under apothecaries, chemists, and metallurgists in various parts of Ger many. Eventually he returned to Prussia, was elected to the Royal Academy of Sci ences there, and made the director of its chemical laboratory by Frederick II. Among Marggrafs achievements in chemistry was the fact that in 1754 he distinguished alumina from lime. That discovery was a harbinger of the time when each would be found to contain a different chemical element: alumina is aluminum oxide and lime is calcium oxide. He also studied the oxidation of phos phorus in 1740 (which of course he 184 [280] GMELIN
WRIGHT [281] didn’t understand as an oxidation, since oxygen and its significance had to await Lavoisier [334]). He recorded the fact that phosphorus gained weight when it was oxidized, which did not fit in with Stahl’s [241] phlogiston theory, which Marggraf wholeheartedly accepted. (He was the last important German chemist to do so.) The gain in weight, which Marggraf reported but did not attempt to explain, was important to Lavoisier later on. Marggraf s greatest achievement, how ever, was the extraction of a crystalline substance from various common plants, including beets, which, on investigation, turned out to be identical to cane sugar. This finding, made in 1747, laid the foundation of Europe’s important sugar- beet industry. [280] GMELIN, Johann Georg (guh- mayfiin) German explorer Born: Tübingen, Württemberg, August 10, 1709 Died: Tübingen, May 20, 1755 Gmelin, the son of an apothecary, ob tained his medical degree in 1727. He followed a couple of his teachers to St. Petersburg, and by 1731 held a profes sorial appointment in chemistry there. In 1733, he joined one of the expedi tions that Russia was sending out to study and explore the Siberian wilderness in the wake of Bering’s [250] important explorations. Among the interesting observations Gmelin made in the course of his explo rations were the barometric pressure readings he took in Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga River where it flows into the Caspian. He was thus able to show for the first time that the shores of the Caspian lie below sea level. In 1735, at the Siberian town of Yeni- seysk, he recorded the lowest tempera ture recorded up to that time. It was the first indication that the earth could, in spots, be far colder than home-bound Europeans realized. In eastern Siberia, he was the first to note that though the frost in the upper most layer of soU melted under the sum mer sun, the ground a little way beneath remained solidly frozen all summer long. He thus discovered the existence of per mafrost, a very important feature of the polar regions. At home in Tübingen, where he be came professor of medicine, botany, and chemistry in 1749, he reported on the appearance of five or six new plant forms in his St. Petersburg garden. He couldn’t explain this in terms of the fixity of species which Linnaeus [276] believed in and which the Biblical ac count of creation made orthodox. The explanation awaited De Vries [792] a century and a half later. [281] WRIGHT, Thomas English astronomer Bom: Byers Green, near Dur ham, September 22, 1711 Died: Byers Green, February 25, 1786
Wright did not exactly have an easy youth. He was the son of a carpenter, and he had little schooling because a speech impediment made life difficult for him. When he grew interested in astron omy and began to study it feverishly, his unsympathetic father burned his books, holding them to be frivolous and time- wasting. Wright was apprenticed to a clockmaker but at eighteen some sort of scandal impelled him to flee home. He continued to study and, away from his father’s influence, he suffered no fur ther book binning. In the course of a continued unsetded life he studied navi gation and astronomy; and, speech impediment notwithstanding or sur mounted, he began to teach these sub jects. By 1742, he was even offered a formal teaching position in St. Peters burg, but that fell through. Wright was a religious man who tried to build a model of the universe, with God and heaven at the center and a re gion of darkness and doom at the rim, and with the stars (including the solar system) circling the center inside the outer region of doom. This notion, first advanced in 1750, was the first indica
[282] LOMONOSOV CLAIRAUT
tion that the sun was no more the center of the universe than the earth was, but that all the stars including the sun moved in orbit. Furthermore, he reasoned from the ex istence of the Milky Way that the system of stars was not symmetrical in all direc tions but was flattened. The Milky Way was the appearance of the stars viewed through the long axis of the flattened system. Stripped of its mysticism, Wright was the first to see the stars as existing in a flattened, rotating galaxy. [282] LOMONOSOV, Mikhail Vasil- ievich (luh-muh-noh'suf) Russian chemist and writer
gel), November 19, 1711 Died: St. Petersburg (modem Leningrad), April 15, 1765 Lomonosov was the bookish son of a well-to-do shipowner. He made his way to Moscow when he was seventeen (partly to escape a stepmother) and managed to secure admission to school by pretending to be the son of a noble man. His excellent progress resulted in his being sent first to St. Petersburg and then to the University of Marburg in Germany (advanced education in chem istry was not to be had in Russia in those days). He returned to St. Peters burg and was appointed a professor of chemistry at the university in 1745. In the course of his work he published antiphlogistic views during the 1740s and 1750s and suggested the law of con servation of mass. In important ways he anticipated Lavoisier [334]. He also held atomist views, which he thought were too revolutionary to publish. He es poused the theory of heat as a form of motion as Rumford [360] was to do and the wave theory of light as Young [402] was to do. In all these cases, he was ahead of his time. He was the first to record the freezing of mercury. (This took place during a very cold Russian winter, for mercury freezes at forty degrees below zero.) He and a friend tried to repeat the kite ex periment of Franklin [272]. The friend was killed and Lomonosov barely es caped. In astronomy he was the first to ob serve the atmosphere of Venus, during its transit across the sun in 1761, though the fact of his discovery remained un known outside Russia for a century and a half. Lomonosov was the founder of Russian science, and he would be univer sally recognized as a great pioneer of sci ence had he only been born a West Eu ropean. He was famous also for his liter ary works, including poems and dramas. In 1755 he wrote a Russian grammar that reformed the language and in the same year he, along with Euler [275], helped found the University of Moscow. In 1760 he published the first history of Russia; he was also the first to prepare an accurate map of that country. And yet Russian scientists were looked down upon, even inside Russia, by the men of German extraction who monopolized Russian science through the nineteenth century. Lomonosov quarreled with his German colleague, grew embittered, and in his last years took to drink. Virtually unknown to the Western na tions, he is amply honored by the Soviet Union now. His birthplace of Denisovka had its name changed to Lomonosov in 1948. In 1960, when a Soviet satellite circled the moon and photographed part of its hidden side, one of the craters revealed was named for him. [283] CLAIRAUT, Alexis Claude (klay-roh') French mathematician
Clairaut, who was tutored by his mathematician father, was a prodigy, studying the calculus at ten, writing mathematical papers at thirteen, publish ing a book of mathematics at eighteen. The last earned him a membership in the French Academy of Sciences in 1731 even though he was below the legal age. (He had a brother who wrote on mathe matics at the age of nine, but that brother died at sixteen.) Clairaut accompanied Maupertuis
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