Biotechnology
Download 4.84 Kb. Pdf ko'rish
|
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- Microbial Source Tracking (MST)
- Microchannel Fluidic Devices S e e M I C R O - FLUIDICS . Microfilaments
- Microgram 10 –6 gram, or 2.527 × 10 –8 ounce (avoirdupoir). Micromachining
- Microparticles
- Microsystems Technology See MST ( NANO- TECHNOLOGY ). Microtubules
- Mid-Oleic Vegetable Oils
- Mimetics See BIOMIMETIC MATERIALS . Minimized Domains See MINIMIZED PROTEINS . Minimized Proteins
- Minimum Tillage See LOW - TILLAGE CROP PRO- DUCTION , NO - TILLAGE CROP PRODUCTION . “Miniprotein Domains”
- Mixed-Function Oxygenases
- Mold See FUNGUS . Mole
- Molecular Breeding TM
- Molecular Chaperones See CHAPERONES , PRO- TEIN FOLDING . Molecular Diversity
- Molecular Evolution S e e C O M B I N A T O R I A L CHEMISTRY . Molecular Fingerprinting
- Molecular Pharming TM
- Molecular Weight
- Monoclonal Antibodies (MAb)
|
M Microbe A microscopic organism; applied particularly to bacteria. The word “microbe” was coined by Monsieur Sedillot, a col- league of Louis Pasteur. See also BACTERIA , GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MICROBIAL PESTICIDES ( GEMP ), PHYTOALEXINS . Microbial Physiology The cell structure, growth factors, metabolism, and genetics of microorganisms. See also MICROORGANISM , CELL , METABOLISM , GENETICS , MICROBIOLOGY . Microbial Source Tracking (MST) The pro- cess of systematically determining the orig- inal source (in a specific environment) of a microbe (e.g., the one that has caused a given disease outbreak). Some of the technologies utilized in MST include genetic fingerprint- ing, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), sero- typing, etc. See also MICROBE , PATHOGEN , POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION ( PCR ) TECHNIQUE , SEROTYPES . Microbicide Any chemical that will kill microorganisms. Used synonymously with the terms biocide and bactericide. See also MICROORGANISM , BIOCIDE . Microbiology The science dealing with the structure, classification, physiology, and dis- tribution of microorganisms, and with their technical and medical significance. The term microorganism is applied to the simple uni- cellular and structurally similar representa- tives of the plant and animal kingdoms. With few exceptions, the unicellular organisms are invisible to the naked eye and generally have dimensions of between a fraction of a micron and 200 microns. See also MICRON . Microchannel Fluidic Devices S e e M I C R O - FLUIDICS . Microfilaments Very thin filaments found in the cytoplasm of cells. See also CELL , CYTO- PLASM , MICROTUBULES . Microfluidic Chips See BIOCHIP , MICROFLUID- ICS , NANOTECHNOLOGY . Microfluidics Refers to the science and prop- erties of fluids when flowing through very small passages (e.g., micron or nanometer dimensions) and/or in very small amounts (e.g., femtogram quantities). For example, to move fluid (samples), microfluidic chips uti- lize either capillary action or else they “pump” fluid (through microchannels in those chips) electrokinetically (i.e., cause the flow to occur by applying a controlled elec- trical field, so liquid is attracted to electrical charge, and thereby flows). Such “pumping” could also be utilized to deliver certain med- icines in very small, precisely timed and metered doses (e.g., if the microfluidic chip is embedded into diseased tissue within the body). Another potential application of such “pumping” could be to perform multiple chemical analyses (e.g., of body fluids within diseased tissues), in which case such microfluidic chips are known as “lab-on-a- chip”/laboratory-on-a-chip analytical devices. See also BIOCHIP , NANOTECHNOLOGY , MICROARRAY ( TESTING ), NANOSCIENCE , MICRON . Microgram 10 –6 gram, or 2.527 × 10 –8 ounce (avoirdupoir). Micromachining Refers to the technology and tools or methods utilized to create the very small parts, grooves (in chips/arrays), etc. in NEMS (nanoelectromechanical systems), biochips, microarrays, and other devices of the field of nanotechnology. See also NANO- TECHNOLOGY , NANOELECTROMECHANICAL SYS- TEMS ( NEMS ), BIOCHIP , MICROARRAY ( TESTING ). Micron Also called micrometer. A unit of length convenient for describing cellular dimensions; the Greek letter µ is used as its symbol. A micron is equal to 10 –3 mm (mil- l i m e t e r ) o r 1 0 4 Å ( A n g s t r o m s ) o r 0.00003937 inch. See also MICROBIOLOGY , CELL , MICROFLUIDICS . Microorganism Any organism of microscopic size (i.e., requires a microscope to be seen by man). First viewed by Antoni van Leeuenhoek in 1676. Some microorganisms are pathogenic (disease-causing) and some are not. See also MICROBIOLOGY , BACTERIA , PATHOGENIC , NEMATODES , CAPSULE . Microparticles Refers to the metal particles (R gene gun). See also BIOLISTIC R GENE GUN , VECTORS , MICRON , GENE . Microphage See POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKO- CYTES . Micropropagation A technique used by man to replicate (mass-produce) a given (e.g., valuable) plant by making genetic clones (“copies”) of that original plant. See also CLONE ( AN ORGANISM ), GENETICS . Microsatellite DNA Pieces of the same small segment (i.e., a DNA sequence) which are © 2002 by CRC Press LLC M “repeated” (appear repeatedly in sequence within the DNA molecule) adjacent to a spe- cific gene within the DNA molecule. Thus, these “microsatellites” are linked to that spe- cific gene. See also DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), LINKAGE , SEQUENCE ( OF A DNA MOLE- CULE ), SATELLITE DNA , GENE , LINKAGE GROUP . Microsystems Technology See MST ( NANO- TECHNOLOGY ). Microtubules Tiny hollow filaments (i.e., string-like structures) within eucaryotic cells, that are made of tubulin ( α and β pro- teins). Some microtubules give the cell its shape (e.g., act as structural components of cell). Other microtubules are the “tow ropes” utilized to move proteins within cells via vesicular transport (vesicles are small hol- low structures that contain those protein molecules). Microtubules also “tow” apart the paired chromosomes within cells undergoing mei- osis. Within neurons (cells of the mammal nervous system), microtubules transport messenger RNAs (mRNA) from the nucleus (where they are manufactured) to the ribo- somes in the dendrites (long extensions of the neuron cell), where the mRNAs are “translated” into protein molecules (i.e, pro- teins are manufactured by ribosome). See also CELL , MEIOSIS , MESSENGER RNA ( m RNA ), DENDRITES , PROTEIN , VESICULAR TRANSPORT ( OF A PROTEIN ), EUCARYOTE . Mid-Oleic Sunflowers Refers to sunflower (crop) plant varieties which have been bred so their seeds contain 50–75% oleic acid within the oil in those seeds; vs. historical average of 20% oleic acid in the oil of tra- ditional sunflower (crop) plant varieties. See also FATTY ACID , OLEIC ACID , HIGH - OLEIC OIL SOYBEANS . Mid-Oleic Vegetable Oils Refers to any veg- etable oils (other than sunflower oil) that contain 50–70% oleic acid. The range of oleic acid content is slightly different for mid-oleic sunflower oil definition. See also MID - OLEIC SUNFLOWERS , FATTY ACID , OLEIC ACID . Mimetics See BIOMIMETIC MATERIALS . Minimized Domains See MINIMIZED PROTEINS . Minimized Proteins The domain/active site of a (former) native protein after all or most of its extraneous (unneeded) portions (pep- tides) have been removed. In 1995, Brian Cunningham and James A. Wells reduced the 28-residue (peptide) protein (hormone) Atrial Natriuretic Factor to 15-residues (pep- tides) size without reducing its potency (bio- logical activity). Minimized proteins that retain their potency hold the potential for medicines possessing a greater serum life- time (when injected into a patient’s body), and as “models” for the creation of organic- chemical-synthesized mimetic drugs pos- sessing the same therapeutic effect as the native protein did. See also PROTEIN , PEPTIDE , ACTIVE SITE , ENZYME , CATALYTIC SITE , DOMAIN ( OF A PROTEIN ), HORMONE , ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR , BIOMIMETIC MATERIALS , SERUM LIFE- TIME , BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY . Minimum Tillage See LOW - TILLAGE CROP PRO- DUCTION , NO - TILLAGE CROP PRODUCTION . “Miniprotein Domains” S e e M I N I M I Z E D PROTEINS . “Miniproteins” See MINIMIZED PROTEINS . Mitochondria Granular or rod-shaped bodies (organelles) in a cell’s cytoplasm, that con- tain the zyme systems required in the citric acid cycle, electron transport, beta oxidation of fatty acids, and synthesis of ATP via oxi- dative phosphorylation. See also ZYME SYS- TEMS , CELL , MITOCHONDRIAL DNA , CARNITINE , ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE , FATTY ACIDS , FATS , PHOSPHOLIPIDS , CYTOCHROME , CYTOPLASM , CITRIC ACID CYCLE , ATP , A c - C o A . Mitochondrial DNA The DNA within an organism’s (e.g., human) cells that is located inside the mitchondria (organelles); not inside the cell nucleus. Mitochondrial DNA is only passed down from mother to off- spring; not from father to offspring, as nuclear DNA is. See also DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), CELL , MITOCHONDRIA , NUCLEUS , CYTOPLASMIC DNA . Mitogen A substance (growth factor, hormone, etc.) that initiates cell division within the body. For example, most Angiogenic Growth Factors (e.g., fibroblast growth fac- tor) stimulate cell division of the endothelial cells which line blood vessel walls. See also MITOSIS , GROWTH FACTOR , HORMONE , ANGIO- GENIC GROWTH FACTORS , ENDOTHELIAL CELLS . © 2002 by CRC Press LLC M Mitosis A process of cell duplication, or repro- duction, during which one cell gives rise to two identical daughter cells. See also MITO- GEN , TUBULIN . Mixed-Function Oxygenases Enzymes cata- lyzing simultaneous oxidation of two sub- stances by oxygen, one of which is usually NADPH or NADH. See also NADPH , NADH , OXIDATION , ENZYME . Model Organism Refers to an organism that is utilized (e.g., in scientific experiments) to conduct tests, etc. in an attempt to infer results applicable to larger, more complex organisms. For example, the use of the microscopic roundworm C. elegans in high- throughput screening to attempt to find phar- maceuticals that will be useful for humans. See also ORGANISM , DROSOPHILA , CAENORHAB- DITIS ELEGANS ( C . ELEGANS ), HIGH - THROUGHPUT SCREENING ( HTS ), ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA . Moiety Referring to a part or portion of a mol- ecule, generally complex, having a character- istic chemical or pharmacological property. See also ANALOGUE , PHARMACOPHORE . Mold See FUNGUS . Mole An Avogadro’s number (6.023 × 10 23 ) of whatever units are being considered. One gram molecular weight of an element or a compound (i.e., same number of grams of an element or a compound as that sub- stance’s molecular weight, equal to 6.023 × 10 23 molecules). See also MOLECULAR WEIGHT . Molecular Beacon Term that is used to refer to specific oligonucleotides possessing a “hairpin loop” and bearing a fluorescent dye. A “quencher dye” located on a nearby por- tion of the hairpin loop prevents fluorescence until the hairpin loop is opened up. Molec- ular beacons (sometimes called fluorogenic probes) are utilized (e.g., in high-throughput screening or high-throughput identification) to detect the presence of a desired “target” molecule. When the “target” (i.e., a molecule possessing the desired functional group or desired property) is present within a given sample being evaluated, the “hairpin loop” opens up because a portion of it forms a stronger bond to the “target,” than to the rest of the loop thereby allowing the fluorescent dye to emit light. See also OLIGONUCLEOTIDE , HAIRPIN LOOP , FLUORESCENCE , TARGET ( OF A THERAPEUTIC AGENT ), TARGET ( OF A HERBICIDE OR INSECTICIDE ), HIGH - THROUGHPUT IDENTIFICA- TION , HIGH - THROUGHPUT SCREENING ( HTS ). Molecular Biology A term coined by Vanne- var Bush during the 1940s that eventually came to mean the study and manipulation of molecules that constitute, or interact with, cells. Molecular biology as a distinct scien- tific discipline originated largely as a result of a decision to provide “support for the application of new physical and chemical techniques to biology” during the 1930s by Warren Weaver, director of the biology (funding) program at America’s Rockefeller Foundation (a philanthropic organization). See also MOLECULAR GENETICS , GENETICS , GENETIC ENGINEERING , BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY , BIOPOLYMER , BIOGENESIS , BIOCHEMISTRY , DEOXY- RIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), MITOSIS , MEIOSIS . Molecular Breeding TM A trademarked term that refers to certain “molecular evolution” technologies developed by Maxygen Com- pany. This term is also sometimes used to refer to the utilization of molecular genetics and/or marker assisted selection in a breed- ing program (e.g., within a seed company or within a university) to select the organisms (e.g., crop varieties) that possess gene(s) for a particular trait (higher yield, disease resis- tance, etc.). See also MARKER ASSISTED SELEC- TION , MOLECULAR EVOLUTION , GENE , TRAIT , MARKER ( DNA SEQUENCE ), QUANTITATIVE TRAIT LOCI ( QTL ). Molecular Chaperones See CHAPERONES , PRO- TEIN FOLDING . Molecular Diversity Sometimes referred to as “irrational drug design,” this refers to the drug design technique of generating large numbers of diverse candidate molecules (e.g., pieces of DNA, RNA, proteins, or other organic moieties) at random (via a vari- ety of methods). These diverse candidate molecules are then tested to see which is best at working against a disease/condition (e.g., fitting a cell receptor, or category of receptors relevant to the disease in question). Molecu- lar candidates that show promise (e.g., via a “pretty good fit” to receptor) are then pro- duced in larger quantities (e.g., via Poly- merase Chain Reaction techniques) along with additional molecules that are similar © 2002 by CRC Press LLC M though slightly different in structure (e.g., via site-directed mutagenesis) in an attempt to create a molecule that is a “perfect fit” (e.g., to receptor). See also RATIONAL DRUG DESIGN , DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), RIBO- NUCLEIC ACID ( RNA ), RECEPTORS , RECEPTOR FIT- TING ( RF ), RECEPTOR MAPPING ( RM ), MOIETY , POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION ( PCR ), SITE - DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS , DIVERSITY BIOTECHNOL- OGY CONSORTIUM , COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY , COMBINATORIAL BIOLOGY . Molecular Evolution S e e C O M B I N A T O R I A L CHEMISTRY . Molecular Fingerprinting See C O M B I N A T O - RIAL CHEMISTRY . Molecular Genetics The science dealing with the study of the nature and biochemistry of the genetic material. Includes the technolo- gies of genetic engineering. See also GENET- I C S , G E N E T I C E N G I N E E R I N G , M O L E C U L A R BIOLOGY , BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY , BIOPOLYMER , BIOGENESIS , BIOCHEMISTRY , DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), MITOSIS , MEIOSIS , MOLECULAR DIVERSITY , CENTRAL DOGMA . Molecular Machines Refers to nanometer- dimension “machines” capable of doing var- ious tasks. See also NANOTECHNOLOGY , NANOMETERS ( NM ), BIOMOTORS , NANOBOTS , NANOELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEM ( NEMS ), NANOSCIENCE . Molecular Pharming TM A trademark of the Groupe Limagrain company, it refers to the production of pharmaceuticals and certain other chemicals (e.g., intermediates utilized to manufacture pharmaceuticals) in agro- nomic plants (which have been genetically engineered). See also ANTIBIOTIC , GENETIC ENGINEERING , PHYTOCHEMICALS , “ EDIBLE VAC- CINES ”, CORN , PLANTIBODIES ™ . Molecular Weight The sum of the atomic weights of the constituent atoms in a mole- cule. See also ATOMIC WEIGHT . Monarch Butterfly Refers to the insect (Lep- idoptera: Danaidae or Danaus plexippus) whose pupae (caterpillars) feed exclusively on tissue of the plant known as common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), and whose territory extends from northern Mexico to approximately Canada’s southern border. See also BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS ( B . t .), B . t . KURSTAKI , B . t . TOLWORTHI , CRY 1 A (b) PROTEIN . Monoclonal Antibodies (MAb) Discovered and developed in the 1970s by Cesar Mil- stein and Georges Kohler, monoclonal anti- bodies are the name for antibodies derived from a single source or clone of cells that recognize only one kind of antigen. Made by fusing myeloma cancer cells (which mul- tiply very fast) with antibody-producing cells, then spreading the resulting conjugate colony so thin that each cell can be grown into a whole, separate colony (i.e., cloning). In this way, one gets whole batches of the same (monoclonal) antibody, which are all specific to the same antigen. Monoclonal antibodies have found mar- kets in diagnostic kits and show potential for use in drugs (e.g., to shrink tumors), imaging agents, and in purification processes. One example of a diagnostic use is the invention in 1997 by Bruno Oesch of a monoclonal antibody-based rapid test to detect the prion (PrP 5c) that causes bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle. See also ASCITES , MYELOMA , TUMOR , CORN , IMMUNO- TOXIN , BLAST CELL , ANTIGEN , ANTIBODY , SINGLE - DOMAIN ANTIBODIES ( dAbs ), MURINE , CATALYTIC ANTIBODY , SEMISYNTHETIC CATALYTIC ANTIBODY , BSE , PRION , HER - 2 GENE . Monocytes Also called monocyte macroph- ages. The round-nucleated cells that circulate in the blood. In summary they engulf and kill microorganisms, present antigen to the lym- phocytes, kill certain tumor cells, and are involved in the regulation of inflammation. These cells are often the first to encounter a foreign substance or pathogen or normal cell debris in the body. When they do, the material is taken up (engulfed) and degraded by means of oxidative and hydrolytic enzy- matic attack. Peptides that result from the degradation of foreign protein are then bound to a monocyte protein called class II MHC (major histocompatibility complex) and this self-foreign complex then migrates to the surface of the cell where it is embed- ded into the cell membrane in such a way as to present the peptide to the outside of the cell. This positioning allows T lymphocytes to recognize (inspect) the peptide. Whereas self-peptides derived from normal cellular debris are ignored, foreign peptides activate © 2002 by CRC Press LLC M precursors of helper T cells to further mature into active, lymphokine-secreting helper T lymphocytes, also known as TH cells. When monocytes move out of the blood- stream and into the tissues they are then called macrophages. See also MACROPHAGE , CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSE , PATHOGEN , MHC . Monoecious A category of plants (e.g., the soy- bean plant) that possess both male and female reproductive structures on the same plant. Thus, such plants are capable of self- pollination. For example, 95% of the pollen from a soybean plant (Glycine max) does not leave the flower in which it was produced. Virtually none of a given soybean plant’s pol- len leaves the plant in which it was produced. See also SOYBEAN PLANT , BARNASE . Monomer The basic molecular subunit from which, by repetition of a single reaction, polymers are made. For example, amino acids (monomers) link together via conden- sation reactions to yield polypeptides or pro- teins (polymers). A monomer is analogous to a link (monomer) in a metal chain (poly- mer). See also POLYMER . Download 4.84 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
|