Biotechnology

Monosaccharides The chemical building
blocks of carbohydrates, hence known as
“simple sugars.” They are classified by the
number of carbon atoms in the (monosac-
charide) molecule. For example, pentoses
have five and hexoses have six carbon atoms.
They normally form ring structures. The
empirical formula for monosaccharides is
(CH
2
O)n. See also 
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
,
CARBO-
HYDRATES
,
SUGAR MOLECULES
.
Monounsaturated Fats Fat molecules pos-
sessing one less than the maximum possible
number of hydrogen atoms (on that given fat
molecule). Diets that are high in monounsat-
urated fat content have been shown to reduce
low-density lipoproteins (“bad” cholesterol)
blood content, while leaving blood levels of
high-density lipoproteins (“good” choles-
terol) essentially unchanged. See also 
FATTY
ACID
,
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
,
DEHYDROGENA-
TION
,
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID
,
LOW
-
DENSITY
LIPOPROTEINS
  (
LDLP
),
HIGH
-
DENSITY LIPOPRO-
TEINS
 (
HDLP
s
),
OLEIC ACID
,
FATS
.
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA)
Refers to the category of those fatty acids
(e.g., oleic acid) that possess one less than
the maximum possible number of hydrogen
atoms (e.g., possible to be attached to the
molecular structure of oleic acid). Enzymes
(e.g.,
∆12 desaturase) present in some oil-
seed plants (soybean, corn/maize, canola,
etc.) convert some MUFAs to polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids (PUFAs) within their devel-
oping seeds. Diets that are high in
monounsaturated fatty acid content have
been shown to reduce low-density lipopro-
teins (“bad” cholesterol) blood content while
simultaneously leaving blood levels of high-
density lipoproteins (“good” cholesterol)
essentially unchanged. Soybean oil has his-
torically averaged approximately 24.5%
monounsaurated fatty acid content by
weight. See also 
MONOUNSATURATED FATS
,
FATTY ACID
,
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID
,
SOYBEAN
OIL
,
OLEIC ACID
,
LOW
-
DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS
(
LDLP
),
DELTA
12
DESATURASE
,
POLYUNSATU-
RATED FATTY ACIDS
 (
PUFA
).
Morphogenetic An adjective referring to for-
mation and differentiation of tissues and
organs in an organism. See also 
MORPHOLOGY
,
STEM CELLS
,
TOTIPOTENT STEM CELLS
.
Morphology First used in print by the poet
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, this word is
utilized to refer to the form/structure of an
organism or any of its parts. See also 
TRAIT
,
PHENOTYPE
.
MOS See
MANNANOLIGOSACCHARIDES
.
MRA See
MUTUAL RECOGNITION AGREEMENTS
,
MUTUAL RECOGNITION ARRANGEMENTS
.
MRL See
MAXIMUM RESIDUE LEVEL
.
mRNA See
MESSENGER RNA
.
MSF See
MEGAKARYOCYTE STIMULATING FACTOR
.
MST (microbes) S e e
M I C R O B I A L
S O U R C E
TRACKING
.
MST (nanotechnology) Acronym utilized by
Europeans to refer to “microsystems tech-
nology” (i.e., their common term for “micro-
electromechanical systems” — MEMS). See
also
NANOTECHNOLOGY
,
BIOCHIP
,
GENOSENSORS
,
BIOSENSORS
 (
ELECTRONIC
),
BIOSENSORS
 (
CHEMI-
CAL
),
QUANTUM WIRE
,
QUANTUM DOT
,
NANO-
CRYSTAL MOLECULES
,
MICROFLUIDICS
,
BIOMOTORS
,
MOLECULAR MACHINES
.
MTAS See
MICRO TOTAL ANALYSIS SYSTEMS
.
MUFA See
MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
(
MUFA
).
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

M
Multi-Copy Plasmids P l a s m i d s   p r e s e n t
inside bacteria in quantities greater than one
plasmid per (host) cell. See also 
PLASMID
,
VECTOR
,
COPY NUMBER
.
Multienzyme System A sequence of related
enzymes participating in a given metabolic
(chemical reaction) pathway.
Multiple Sclerosis A disease in which the
human body’s immune cells attack myelin
(the “insulation” that surrounds nerve fibers
in the spinal cord and brain) and the body’s
acetyl choline receptors. That leads to recur-
rent muscle weakness, loss of muscle con-
trol, and (potentially) eventual paralysis. See
also
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE
,
THYMUS
,
ACETYL-
CHOLINE
,
RECEPTORS
,
IMMUNE RESPONSE
,
NEU-
ROTRANSMITTER
,
EXCITATORY AMINO ACIDS
(
EAAs
).
Multipotent Adult Stem Cell Certain stem
cells present within (adult) bodies of organ-
isms, that can be differentiated (via chemical
signals) to give rise to a variety of different
cell/tissue types (bone, cartilage, fat, muscle,
red blood cells, B cells, T cells, etc.). See
also
STEM CELLS
,
CELL
,
ORGANISM
,
SIGNALING
,
RED BLOOD CELLS
,
B CELLS
,
T CELLS
,
MESODER-
MAL ADULT STEM CELLS
.
Murine Of, or pertaining to, mice. For exam-
ple, the first monoclonal antibodies were
produced using cells from mice. This fre-
quently caused adverse immune responses
to monoclonal antibodies when they were
injected into the human body (e.g., thus lim-
iting their use in therapeutic purposes).
However, researchers have recently discov-
ered how to make monoclonal antibodies in
human cells. See also 
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
(
MA
b
).
Muscular Dystrophy (MD) A genetic dis-
ease caused by a defect in the X chromo-
some (resulting in nonexpression of the
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy gene); first
recognized by G. A. B. Duchenne in 1858.
The disease afflicts males almost exclusively
because males have only one X chromo-
some, whereas females inherit two copies of
the X chromosome and have a “backup” in
case one X chromosome is damaged (as is
the case for MD victims). In 1981, Kay E.
Davies used DNA probes (genetic probes)
to discover that the Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy (DMD) gene must lie somewhere
between two unique (to MD victims) seg-
ments on the upper, shorter arm of the
X chromosome. See also 
DNA PROBE
,
CHRO-
MOSOMES
,
KARYOTYPE
,
CHROMATIDS
,
CHROMA-
TIN
,
SINGLE
-
NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS
 (
SNP
s
).
Mutagen A chemical substance capable of
producing a genetic mutation (change), by
causing changes in the DNA of living organ-
isms. For example, Dr. Gary Shaw discov-
ered in 1996 that women who smoke
cigarettes during their pregnancies are twice
as likely to have babies with the genetic
deformity known as cleft lip and palate. If
those women have a particularly susceptible
(to smoke) gene variant (allele) within their
DNA, they are as much as eight times as
likely to have babies with cleft lip and palate.
According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), 60–80% of all known mutagens are
also carcinogens (cancer-causing). See also
MUTATION
,
GENE
,
GENETICS
,
HEREDITY
,
GENETIC
CODE
,
CANCER
,
CARCINOGEN
,
ALLELE
,
DEOXY-
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
ONCOGENES
,
MUTANT
,
ANTIOXIDANTS
.
Mutant An altered cell or organism resulting
from mutation (an alteration) of the original
wild (normal) type. A change from the nor-
mal to the unique or abnormal. See also
MUTAGEN
,
HEREDITY
,
WILD TYPE
.
Mutase An enzyme catalyzing transposition of
a functional group in the substrate (sub-
stance acted upon by the enzyme). Intra-
molecular transfer of a chemical group from
one position (i.e., carbon atom) to another
within the same molecule. An example of a
mutase is phosphoglucomutase. It has a
molecular weight of about 60,000 Daltons
with about 600 amino acid residues (mono-
mers). The mutase can interchange (move)
a phosphate unit between the 1 and 6 posi-
tion. The 1 refers to a carbon atom desig-
nated as “#1” and the 6 refers to a different
carbon atom designated as “#6.”
Mutation From the Latin term mutare, mean-
ing to change. Any change that alters the
sequence of the nucleotide bases in the
genetic material (DNA) of an organism or
cell; with alteration occurring either by dis-
placement, addition, deletion, cross-linking,
or other destruction. The mutation alteration
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

M
to the DNA sequence would alter its mean-
ing, i.e., its ability to produce the normal
amount or normal kind of protein, so the
organism or cell is itself altered. Such an
altered organism is called a mutant. See also
MUTANT
,
INFORMATIONAL MOLECULES
,
HERED-
ITY
,
GENETIC CODE
,
GENETIC MAP
,
PROTEIN
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
).
Mutation Breeding Refers to several tech-
niques, involving induced mutations, that
were utilized by some crop plant breeders
(primarily in the 1960s and 1970s) to intro-
duce desirable genes into the plants with
which they were working. For example,
gene(s) to confer resistance to plant diseases,
increased yield per acre/hectare or improve-
ments in composition that were not present
within the historic/natural germplasm of that
plant species. These new-to-that-species
genes were “created” via soaking its seeds
or pollen in mutation-causing chemicals
(i.e., mutagens), or via bombardment of
seeds with ionizing radiation; followed by
grow-out of the resultant plants and selection
of the particular mutation (i.e., beneficial
trait) desired by the plant breeder. That plant
was then propagated via straightforward
breeding to yield seeds that are still sown
today. See also 
TRADITIONAL BREEDING METH-
ODS
,
MUTATION
,
MUTAGEN
,
GENE
,
TRAIT
,
WHEAT
,
BARLEY
,
POINT MUTATION
.
Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs)
Legal agreements (treaties) between two or
more nations, to recognize and respect each
other’s approval process (e.g., for new crops
derived via biotechnology). See also 
GMO
,
COMMITTEE FOR VETERINARY MEDICINAL PROD-
UCTS
  (
CVMP
),
ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC
COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
  (
OECD
),
EVENT
,
EUROPEAN MEDICINES EVALUATION
AGENCY
  (
EMEA
),
COMMITTEE FOR PROPRIETARY
MEDICINAL PRODUCTS
  (
CPMP
),
UNION FOR PRO-
TECTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF PLANTS
 (
UPOV
).
Mutual Recognition Arrangements S e e
MUTUAL RECOGNITION AGREEMENTS
 (MRAs).
Mycobacterium tuberculosis The pathogen
that causes tuberculosis, a human disease in
which the lungs are destroyed as this bacteria
grows (within lung tissue). In 1998, scien-
tists completed sequencing of the genome of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Recently, a
new strain of M. tuberculosis, that is resis-
tant to virtually all commercial antibiotics,
has begun to infect some people. See also
BACTERIA
,
PATHOGEN
,
SEQUENCING
  (
OF DNA
MOLECULES
),
ANTIBIOTIC
,
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
,
GENOME
,
STRAIN
.
Mycotoxins Toxins produced by fungi. More
than 350 different mycotoxins are known to
man, but the first ones to be isolated and
scientifically characterized (i.e., described)
were the aflatoxins, in 1961. The second
group of mycotoxins to be isolated and char-
acterized were the ochratoxins, in 1965.
Almost all mycotoxins possess the capac-
ity to harmfully alter the immune systems of
animals. Consumption by animals (includ-
ing humans) of certain mycotoxins (via eat-
ing infected corn/maize, wheat, certain tree
nuts, peanuts, cottonseed products, etc.) can
result in liver toxicity, gastrointestinal
lesions, cancer, muscle necrosis, etc. See
also
TOXIN
,
FUNGUS
,
FUSARIUM
,
AFLATOXIN
,
VOMITOXIN
,
FUSARIUM MONILIFORME
,
FUMONISINS
,
ZEARALENONE
,
OCHRATOXINS
,
ERGOTAMINE
.
Myeloma A tumor cell line derived from a
lymphocyte. It usually produces a single
type of immunoglobulin. See also 
HYBRI-
DOMA
,
LYMPHOCYTE
,
AGING
.
Myoelectric Signals The nerve signals that
are sent by the body in order to control mus-
cle movement.
Myristoylation Transformation of proteins in
cells in such a manner that these cells then
cause cancer. See also 
CANCER
.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

0-8493-XXXX-X/01/$0.00+$1.50
© 2001 by CRC Press LLC
N
N
N Glycosylation See
GLYCOSYLATION
.
n-3 Fatty Acids Also known as “omega-3”
fatty acids. Research indicates there are
human health benefits (e.g., antithrombotic,
reduce/avoid coronary heart disease) if the
ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids contained in
the diet is higher than 3, but less than 10.
Soybean oil has an n-6/n-3 ratio of approx-
imately 7:1. Examples of n-3 fatty acids
include linolenic acid (C18:3n-3). Research
indicates that human consumption of n-3
fatty acid(s) imparts anti-thrombotic and
anti-inflammatory health benefits; plus it
lowers levels of triglycerides content in the
bloodstream. During 2000, research was
published that indicated a 66% reduction in
probability for children to develop juvenile
(Type I) diabetes, if their mothers consumed
significant quantities of n-3 fatty acids dur-
ing pregnancy. See also 
POLYUNSATURATED
FATTY ACIDS
  (
PUFA
),
DOCOSAHEXANOIC ACID
(
DHA
),
EICOSAPENTANOIC ACID
 (
EPA
),
LINOLENIC
A C I D
,
S O Y B E A N
O I L
,
T H R O M B O S I S
,
T R I -
GLYCERIDES
,
CORONARY HEART DISEASE
  (
CHD
),
DIABETES
,
INSULIN
.
n-6 Fatty Acids Also known as “omega-6”
fatty acids. Research indicates there are
human health benefits (e.g., antithrombotic,
reduce/avoid coronary heart disease) if the
ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids contained in
the diet is higher than 3 but less than 10.
Soybean oil has an n-6/n-3 ratio of approx-
imately 7:1. Examples of n-6 fatty acids
include linoleic acid (C18:2n-6). Research
indicates that consumption of n-6 fatty acids
has been related to decreased cholesterol
levels in the bloodstream, and decreased
incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD).
See also 
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
 (
PUFA
),
ARACHIDONIC ACID
,
LINOLEIC ACID
,
SOYBEAN OIL
,
THROMBOSIS
,
CORONARY HEART DISEASE
  (
CHD
),
CHOLESTEROL
.
NAD (NADH, NADP, NADPH) N i c o t i n a -
mide-adenine dinucleotide, also known as
diphosphopyridine nucleotide, codehydroge-
nase 1, coenzyme 1, and coenzymase by its
d i s c o v e r e r s ,   H a r d e n   a n d  Yo u n g .
C21H27O14N7 P2. An organic coenzyme
(molecule) that functions as a distinct yet inte-
gral part of certain enzymes. NAD plays a role
in certain enzymes concerned with oxida-
tion/reduction reactions. Meanings: NADH,
nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide, reduced;
NADP, nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide
phosphate; and NADPH, nicotinamide-ade-
nine dinucleotide phosphate, reduced. See
also
ENZYME
,
COENZYME
,
OXIDATION
-
REDUCTION
REACTION
,
NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE
.
NADA (New Animal Drug Application) A n
application to the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) to begin testing/studies
of a new drug for animals (e.g., livestock),
that might (eventually) lead to its FDA
approval. See also 
IND
.
NADH N i c o t i n e - a d e n i n e   d i n u c l e o t i d e ,
reduced. See also 
NAD
.
NADP Nicotine-adenine dinucleotide phos-
phate. See also 
NAD
,
NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE
.
NADPH Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide
phosphate, reduced. See also 
NAD
.
Naked DNA See
NAKED GENE
.
Naked Gene A bare gene (strand of DNA that
codes for a protein) that has been extracted
from an organism, or otherwise derived (e.g.,
synthesized from sequence data). During the
1990s, it was discovered that:
• Injecting the Duchenne Muscular Dys-
trophy “naked gene” into muscle tissue
in the bodies of people suffering from
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

N
Muscular Dystrophy (MD) resulted in
temporary production of the relevant
protein in that muscle tissue (i.e., tem-
porary MD symptom reduction).
• Injecting the VEGF “naked gene” into
relevant tissue in the bodies of people
suffering from inadequate local blood
supply (the shortage of blood flow to
heart known as myocardial ischemia,
lack of blood flow in legs or other
extremities, etc.) resulted in (new)
growth of blood vessels/endothelium,
and reduction in symptoms of those
inadequate blood-supply conditions.
• Injecting the “naked gene” for the rele-
vant antigen of certain pathogens into
some tissues in the (usual disease host)
organism sometimes resulted in those
(host organism) tissues taking up the
“naked gene” and expressing some of
the (pathogen’s) antigen(s), such that
the (putative host organism’s) immune
system initiates an immune response
(thereby resulting in vaccination against
the disease conferred by the pathogen).
When that happens, such “naked genes”
are referred to as “DNA vaccines.”
See also 
GENE
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
PROTEIN
,
ORGANISM
,
SYNTHESIZING
  (
OF DNA
MOLECULES
),
SEQUENCING
 (
OF DNA MOLECULES
),
DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY GENE
,
MUSCU-
LAR DYSTROPHY
  (
MD
),
VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL
GROWTH FACTOR
  (
VEGF
),
PATHOGEN
,
EXPRESS
,
DNA VACCINES
,
IMMUNE RESPONSE
,
CELLULAR
IMMUNE RESPONSE
,
HUMORAL IMMUNITY
,
ANTI-
BODY
,
DNA VECTOR
.
Nanobiology See
NANOTECHNOLOGY
,
NANOCOM-
POSITES
,
BIOINORGANIC
,
NANOCRYSTALS
,
NANO-
ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEM
 (
NEMS
).
Nanobots Refers to very small “robots” whose
dimensions could be measured in terms of
nanometers (nm), and could perform specific
tasks. See also 
NANOELECTROMECHANICAL SYS-
TEM
  (
NEMS
),
NANOSCIENCE
,
MEMS
  (
NANOTECH-
N O L O G Y
),
B I O M E M S
,
N A N O M E T E R S
  (
N M
),
NANOTECHNOLOGY
.
Nanocomposites Nanometer-scale composite
structures composed of organic molecules
intimately incorporated with inorganic mol-
ecules. For example, abalone shellfish make
mother-of-pearl shells via an intimate com-
bination of protein and calcium carbonate.
Researchers are working on making semi-
conductor devices (chips) containing pep-
tides and other organic molecules attached
to silicon or gallium arsenide. They are also
working on nanoelectromechanical systems
(NEMS) that would have tiny “moving
parts” to be able to do “work” at nanometer
scale. See also 
NANOMETERS
 (
NM
),
NANOTECH-
NOLOGY
,
PROTEIN
,
BIOCHIP
,
PEPTIDE
,
BIOSENSORS
(
ELECTRONIC
),
BIOINORGANIC
,
NANOELECTROME-
CHANICAL SYSTEM
 (
NEMS
).
Nanocrystal Molecules Coined by research-
ers A. Paul Alivisatos and Peter G. Schultz,
it is a term used to describe double-stranded
DNA molecules that have several multi-
atom clusters of gold attached to them. As
of 1996, these researchers were working to
try to create nanometer-scale electrical cir-
cuits, semiconductors, etc. A separate meth-
odology, researched by Chad A. Mirkin et
al., utilizes strands of DNA to reversibly
assemble gold nanoparticles (nanometer-
scale multi-atom particles) into supramolec-
ular (many molecule) agglomerations, in
which the gold particles are separated from
each other by a distance of approximately
60 Angstroms. The aggregation of these
DNA-metal nanoparticles causes a visible
color change.
As of 1996, these researchers were work-
ing to try to create simple and rapid tests that
would indicate the presence of a virus (e.g.,
HIV-1 or HIV- 2) via a visible color change.
Such a test would use two noncomplemen-
tary DNA sequences, each of which has
attached to it a gold nanoparticle (via a thiol
group). The two sequences would be
selected for their ability to latch onto a target
sequence in the desired virus, but they would
be unable to combine with each other, since
they are noncomplementary. When double-
stranded DNA molecules possessing two
“sticky ends” (that are complementary to the
sequences attached to virus) are added, the
resultant color change indicates virus pres-
ence. See also 
DOUBLE HELIX
,
DEOXYRIBO-
NUCLEIC ACID
 (
DNA
),
ANGSTROM
 (
Å
),
NANOMETERS
(nm),
HYBRIDIZATION SURFACES
,
BASE PAIR
  (
bp
),
SELF
-
ASSEMBLY
,
NANOTECHNOLOGY
,
STICKY ENDS
,
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC